Amino acid classification
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Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They contain both a carboxyl and amino group attached to the same carbon atom. Although commonly depicted as neutral molecules, amino acids exist as zwitterions with both positive and negative charges. The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain. Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds formed via a condensation reaction between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the next. This results in a chain of amino acid residues with different properties at each end.
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Translation
1. Protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm by free ribosomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and in the ER and organelles by attached ribosomes in eukaryotes.
2. The process of protein synthesis requires ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, GTP, and various initiation, elongation, and termination factors.
3. Initiation involves assembly of the ribosome and positioning of the start codon in the P site. Elongation is a cyclic process of aminoacyl-tRNA binding, peptide bond formation, and translocation. Termination occurs when a release factor binds to a stop codon and causes hydrolysis of the peptidyl-tRNA.
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The pentose phosphate pathway generates reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH and produces ribose-5-phosphate. It functions primarily in anabolic biosynthesis reactions that require NADPH, such as fatty acid and nucleic acid synthesis. Cells with high levels of these biosynthetic pathways, such as liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland cells, have high levels of pentose phosphate pathway enzymes. The pathway oxidizes glucose through a series of reactions that ultimately produce ribulose-5-phosphate, which can be converted back into glucose-6-phosphate or other three and six carbon intermediates.
Bentham Hooker system of classification
George Bentham and Joseph Hooker jointly presented a comprehensive system of plant classification in their work Genera Plantarum, published in 3 volumes. Their system classified seed plants into 97,205 species under 202 orders or families, divided into 3 classes - dicots, gymnosperms, and monocots. Dicots were further divided into 3 divisions and 14 series based on natural and visual characteristics to provide a key for plant identification. This system was widely adopted because the descriptions of each taxon were based on detailed examination of actual herbarium specimens.
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Plants absorb water through their roots and transport it throughout the plant. There are two main mechanisms of water absorption: active absorption which requires metabolic energy and occurs in slowly transpiring plants, and passive absorption driven by transpiration from the leaves. Most water is absorbed in the root hairs and younger root regions through osmosis as water moves from higher to lower water potential down a gradient. The water then travels upward through the xylem vessels via bulk flow and diffusion processes to reach the leaves where it is lost to transpiration.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the accumulation of nutrients in aquatic ecosystems that alters plant and animal populations and brings changes to the community structure. It occurs naturally over hundreds or thousands of years but human activities like sewage, fertilizer runoff and industrial discharges can accelerate the process through cultural eutrophication over just decades. Major sources of excess nutrients are agricultural fertilizers, domestic sewage and livestock wastes which provide both inorganic and organic nutrients. Eutrophication impacts water chemistry by increasing levels of substances like pH, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrates/nitrites and phosphates.
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Papaver somniferum is the opium poppy, an annual herb growing up to 100 cm tall. It has blue to purple flowers with four petals and many stamens. The fruit is a capsule that holds many small, white to black seeds. The plant contains latex with alkaloids like morphine and codeine that have central nervous system and analgesic effects in humans.
Rauwolfia
Rauwolfia serpentina, also known as Indian snakeroot or sarpagandha, is a plant that contains alkaloids that are effective in treating high blood pressure. High blood pressure increases the workload of the heart and blood vessels and can damage organs. Rauwolfia alkaloids work by controlling nerve impulses along pathways in the heart and blood vessels, which helps to lower blood pressure. The plant is commonly used in Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine systems to treat hypertension and other conditions.
Pentoxylon
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
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This document provides information on the classification, body plan, nutrition, and reproduction of fungi. It discusses that fungi have diverse forms ranging from microorganisms like yeasts and molds to large mushrooms. They have filamentous hyphae that can aggregate to form tissues and structures. Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from dead and decaying material or other living hosts. Reproduction can occur asexually through spores or sexually through the fusion of compatible hyphae and subsequent meiotic division.
Extracellular matrix
The extracellular matrix surrounds animal cells outside of their plasma membranes, filling spaces between cells and adhering them together. It consists of secreted proteins and polysaccharides found most abundantly in connective tissues. One example is the basal lamina, a thin sheet on which epithelial cells rest that surrounds muscle, fat, and nerve cells. The differences in extracellular matrices result from variations in types, amounts, and organization of their major components: matrix proteins, polysaccharides, and adhesion proteins. The pattern of the extracellular matrix regulates key cell processes like polarity, division, adhesion, motility, development, migration, and differentiation by responding to growth factors.
Nuclear envelope and nuclear lamina
The nuclear envelope consists of two parallel membranes separated by 10-50 nm. It serves as a barrier between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Nuclear pores are circular complexes of proteins that form openings in the nuclear envelope, allowing transport of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope forms through the recruitment of membrane vesicles to chromatin, fusion of these vesicles, and assembly of nuclear pore complexes. Key proteins like POM121 and NDC1 are essential for nuclear pore complex assembly after the formation of the double nuclear membrane.
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Bacterial transduction
Bacterial transduction is the process by which bacteria can acquire genetic material from other bacteria through viruses. There are two main types: generalized transduction, where any bacterial DNA can be transferred during a lytic viral infection, and specialized transduction, where a specific region of bacterial DNA is incorporated into a temperate phage and transferred. Transduction was first discovered in 1952 by Lederberg and Zinder while studying Salmonella bacteria. It allows for genetic exchange between bacteria and influences bacterial evolution and adaptation over time.
Nuclear transport
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- 1. Amino acid classification Dr.Sujit Ghosh J K College Purulia
- 3. A simple organic compound containing both a acidic carboxyl (—COOH) and anbasic amino (—NH2) , both attached to the same carbon atom. Amino acids are considered to be the building blocks of proteins. Although the neutrally-charged structure is commonly written, it is inaccurate because the acidic COOH and basic NH2 groups react with one another to form an internal salt called a zwitterion. The zwitterion has no net charge; there is one negative (COO- ) and one positive (NH3 + ) charge.
- 4. Primary structure. The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. The primary structure is held together by covalent bonds such as peptide bonds, which are made during the process of protein biosynthesis. Proteins are macromolecules and have four different levels of structure – primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
- 7. •originate THROUGH peptide bond , it is a type of amide bond called a “peptide bond” •This bond is formed between the alpha amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another in a condensation reaction. •When two amino acids join, the result is called a dipeptide, three gives a tripeptide, etc. Multiple amino acids result in a polypeptide (often shortened to “peptide”). Because water is lost in the course of creating the peptide bond, individual amino acids are referred to as “amino acid residues” once they are incorporated. •The peptide bond is written as a single bond, but it actually has some characteristics of a double bond because of the resonance between the C-O and C-N bonds: •This means that the six atoms involved are coplanar, and that there is not free rotation around the C–N axis. This constrains the flexibility of the chain and prevents some folding patterns. •Another property of peptides is polarity: the two ends are different. One end has a free amino group (called the “N- terminal”) and the other has a free carboxyl group (“C-terminal”). •In the natural course of making a protein, polypeptides are elongated by the addition of amino acids to the C- terminal end of the growing chain. Conventionally, peptides are written N-terminal first; therefore gly-ser is not the same as ser-gly or GS is not the same as SG. peptide. If stretched out, the side chains of the individual residues project outwards from this backbone. •This means that the six atoms involved are coplanar, and that there is not free rotation around the C–N axis. This constrains the flexibility of the chain and prevents some folding patterns.