In this presentation I have tried to explain in detail about tablets, their different types, ingredients which are used to prepare them, and the procedure to prepare them as well. This presentation is very useful for pharmacy students.
Tablets are solid dosage forms usually obtained by single or multiple compression of powders or granules. In certain cases tablets may be obtained by molding or extrusion techniques. They are uncoated or coated. Tablets are normally right circular solid cylinders, the end surfaces of which are flat or convex and the edges of which may be bevelled. They may have lines or break-marks (scoring), symbols or other markings.Tablets contain one or more active ingredients. They may contain excipients such as diluents, binders, disintegrating agents, glidants, lubricants, substances capable of modifying the behaviour of the dosage forms and the active ingredient(s) in the gastrointestinal tract, colouring matter authorized by the appropriate national or regional authority and flavouring substances. When such excipients are used it is necessary to ensure that they do not adversely affect the stability, dissolution rate, bioavailability, safety or efficacy of the active ingredient(s); there must be no incompatibility between any of the components of the dosage form.
Tablets are single-dose preparations intended for oral administration. Some are intended to be swallowed whole, some after being chewed and some after being crushed, some are intended to be dissolved or dispersed in water before being taken and some are intended to be retained in the mouth where the active ingredient(s) is/are liberated.
Tablets are solid dosage forms usually obtained by single or multiple compression of powders or granules. In certain cases tablets may be obtained by molding or extrusion techniques. They are uncoated or coated. Tablets are normally right circular solid cylinders, the end surfaces of which are flat or convex and the edges of which may be bevelled. They may have lines or break-marks (scoring), symbols or other markings.Tablets contain one or more active ingredients. They may contain excipients such as diluents, binders, disintegrating agents, glidants, lubricants, substances capable of modifying the behaviour of the dosage forms and the active ingredient(s) in the gastrointestinal tract, colouring matter authorized by the appropriate national or regional authority and flavouring substances. When such excipients are used it is necessary to ensure that they do not adversely affect the stability, dissolution rate, bioavailability, safety or efficacy of the active ingredient(s); there must be no incompatibility between any of the components of the dosage form.
Tablets are single-dose preparations intended for oral administration. Some are intended to be swallowed whole, some after being chewed and some after being crushed, some are intended to be dissolved or dispersed in water before being taken and some are intended to be retained in the mouth where the active ingredient(s) is/are liberated.
Tablets: a.Introduction, ideal characteristics of tablets, Classification of tablets. Excipients, Formulation of tablets, granulation methods, compression and processing problems.
The Emerging Role of Pharmacists in Public Health.pptxDr. Ankit Gaur
The Emerging Role of Pharmacists in Public Health: Opportunities and Challenges
General system theory, steven's system model, Pharmacists in india, Disaster management and emergency care, rational use of medicine, RNTCP programme. National Aids Control Programme.
This presentation is about Stress and its impact on health. I have tried to cover everything related to it, stressors, coping mechanisms, tools, types etc.
Gastro esophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) and its managementDr. Ankit Gaur
In this presentation I have tried to explain in brief about gastro esophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), its etiology, risk factors, diagnosis, and its management via pharmacotherapy.
In this presentation I have tried to discuss in brief about obsessive compulsive disorder and its treatment both pharmacological and non pharmacological.
In this presentation I have tried to explain in brief about pain management, different types of pain, its diagnostic criteria, its physiology, and its treatment approaches both pharmacological and non pharmacological
Respiratory Tract Infections- A Pharmacotherapeutic ApproachDr. Ankit Gaur
In this presentation I have tried to explain the types, etiology, pathophysiology of respiratory tract infections such as bronchitis, pnemonia, otitis media, sinusitis, pharyngitis, and their treatment
In this presentation I have tried to explain in brief about the dosage adjustment in renal disorders, how to carry out this process and the important formulae which are used in it.
In this presentation i have tried to explain in brief about nomograms and their applications, the general approach to individualise doage regimen by using pharmacokinetic data
In this presentation i have tried to explain in details about the Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN) , what is it, who needs it, and how to prepare it and the necessary procedure with instructions. It is very useful for the individuals from Nutrition, Nursing, Pharmacists, and Medical background.
in this presentation i have tried to briefly discuss about diuretics (water pills), their classification, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of these drugs
In this presentation i have tried to explain in brief about CPR, how and when it has to be done and the important things to be kept in mind while doing it. This ppt is very helpful for every individual who is looking for the info regarding CPR.
In this presentation i have tried to explain in detail about the nux vomica and khurchi bark. This presentation is useful for the individuals who are looking for information on this topic especially for those students who are studying Pharmacognosy.
In this presentation i have tried to explain in detail about the measurements of the outcomes which are used in epidemiology such as prevalence, incidence, fatality rate, crude death rate etc.
In this presentation i tried to explain in detail about cohort studies, their types, how to conduct them, their outcomes, and how to calculate sample size of these studies.
In this presentation i have tried to thoroughly discuss about the concept of Drug induced kidney disease or injury, the mechanism behind it, its classification and how to access it.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
Welcome to Secret Tantric, London’s finest VIP Massage agency. Since we first opened our doors, we have provided the ultimate erotic massage experience to innumerable clients, each one searching for the very best sensual massage in London. We come by this reputation honestly with a dynamic team of the city’s most beautiful masseuses.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Struggling with intense fears that disrupt your life? At Renew Life Hypnosis, we offer specialized hypnosis to overcome fear. Phobias are exaggerated fears, often stemming from past traumas or learned behaviors. Hypnotherapy addresses these deep-seated fears by accessing the subconscious mind, helping you change your reactions to phobic triggers. Our expert therapists guide you into a state of deep relaxation, allowing you to transform your responses and reduce anxiety. Experience increased confidence and freedom from phobias with our personalized approach. Ready to live a fear-free life? Visit us at Renew Life Hypnosis..
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
The dimensions of healthcare quality refer to various attributes or aspects that define the standard of healthcare services. These dimensions are used to evaluate, measure, and improve the quality of care provided to patients. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions ensures that healthcare systems can address various aspects of patient care effectively and holistically. Dimensions of Healthcare Quality and Performance of care include the following; Appropriateness, Availability, Competence, Continuity, Effectiveness, Efficiency, Efficacy, Prevention, Respect and Care, Safety as well as Timeliness.
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair: A New Horizon in Nephrology" explores groundbreaking advancements in the use of R3 stem cells for kidney disease treatment. This insightful piece delves into the potential of these cells to regenerate damaged kidney tissue, offering new hope for patients and reshaping the future of nephrology.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
Navigating the Health Insurance Market_ Understanding Trends and Options.pdfEnterprise Wired
From navigating policy options to staying informed about industry trends, this comprehensive guide explores everything you need to know about the health insurance market.
1. ALL YOU NEED TO
KNOW ABOUT TABLETS
By: Dr. Ankit Gaur
M.Sc, Pharm.D, RPh
2. INTRODUCTION
Tablet is defined as a compressed solid dosage
form containing medicaments with or
without excipients. According to the Indian
Pharmacopoeia Pharmaceutical tablets are
solid, flat or biconvex dishes, unit dosage
form, prepared by compressing a drug or a
mixture of drugs, with or without diluents
3. The advantages of the Tablet dosage
form are:
• They are unit dosage form and offer the greatest
capabilities of all oral dosage form for the greatest dose
precision and the least content variability.
• Cost is lowest of all oral dosage form.
• Lighter and compact.
• Easiest and cheapest to package and strip.
• Easy to swallowing with least tendency for hang-up.
• Sustained release product is possible by enteric coating.
4. • Objectionable odour and bitter taste can be masked by
coating technique.
• Suitable for large scale production.
• Greatest chemical and microbial stability over all oral
dosage form.
• Product identification is easy and rapid requiring no
additional steps when employing an embossed and/or
monogrammed punch face.
5. Disadvantages of Tablet dosage form are:
• Difficult to swallow in case of children and unconscious
patients.
• Some drugs resist compression into dense compacts, owing to
amorphous nature, low density character.
• Drugs with poor wetting, slow dissolution properties, optimum
absorption high in GIT may be difficult to formulate or
manufacture as a tablet that will still provide adequate or full
drug bioavailability.
• Bitter testing drugs, drugs with an objectionable odor or drugs
that are sensitive to oxygen may require encapsulation or
coating. In such cases, capsule may offer the best and lowest
cost.
6. Different types of Tablets
(A) Tablets ingested orally:
1. Compressed tablet, e.g. Paracetamol tablet
2. Multiple compressed tablet
3. Repeat action tablet
4. Delayed release tablet, e.g. Enteric coated Bisacodyl
tablet
5. Sugar coated tablet, e.g. Multivitamin tablet
6. Film coated tablet, e.g. Metronidazole tablet
7. Chewable tablet, e.g. Antacid tablet
(B) Tablets used in oral cavity:
1. Buccal tablet, e.g. Vitamin-c tablet
2. Sublingual tablet, e.g. Vicks Menthol tablet
3. Troches or lozenges
4. Dental cone
7. (c) Tablets administered by other route:
1. Implantation tablet
2. Vaginal tablet, e.g. Clotrimazole tablet
(D) Tablets used to prepare solution:
1. Effervescent tablet, e.g. Dispirin tablet (Aspirin)
2. Dispensing tablet, e.g. Enzyme tablet (Digiplex)
3. Hypodermic tablet
4. Tablet triturates e.g. Enzyme tablet (Digiplex)
8. Tablet Ingredients
In addition to active ingredients, tablet contains a number of inert
materials known as additives or excipients. Different excipients are:
1. Diluent
2. Binder and adhesive
3. Disintegrents
4. Lubricants and glidants
5. Colouring agents
6. Flavoring agents
7. Sweetening agents
10. • 1. Diluent: Diluents are fillers used to make required bulk
of the tablet when the drug dosage itself is inadequate to
produce the bulk. Secondary reason is to provide better
tablet properties such as improve cohesion, to permit use of
direct compression manufacturing or to promote flow. A
diluent should have following properties:
1. They must be non toxic
2. They must be commercially available in acceptable
grade
3. There cost must be low
4. They must be physiologically inert
5. They must be physically & chemically stable by
themselves & in combination with the drugs.
6. They must be free from all microbial contamination.
7. They do not alter the bioavailability of drug.
8. They must be color compatible.
12. 2. Binders and Adhesives: These materials are
added either dry or in wet- form to form granules
or to form cohesive compacts for directly
compressed tablet.
• Example: Acacia, tragacanth- Solution for 10-25%
Conc.
• Cellulose derivatives- Methyl cellulose, Hydroxy
propyl methyl cellulose, Hydroxy propyl cellulose
• Gelatin- 10-20% solution
• Glucose- 50% solution
• Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)- 2% conc.
• Starch paste-10-20% solution
• Sodium alginate
• Sorbitol
13. 3. Disintegrants: Added to a tablet formulation to
facilitate its breaking or disintegration when it
contact in water in the GIT.
• Example: Starch- 5-20% of tablet weight.
• Starch derivative – Primogel and Explotab (1-8%)
• Clays- Veegum HV, bentonite 10% level in colored
tablet only
• Cellulose
• Cellulose derivatives- Ac- Di-Sol (sodium carboxy
methyl cellulose)
• Alginate
• PVP (Polyvinylpyrrolidone), cross-linked
14. • Superdisintegrants: Swells up to ten fold within
30 seconds when contact water.
• Example: Crosscarmellose- cross-linked cellulose,
Crosspovidone- cross-linked povidone (polymer),
Sodium starch glycolate- cross-linked starch. These
cross-linked products swells with in 30 seconds
when in contact with water.
• A portion of disintegrant is added before
granulation and a portion before compression,
which serve as glidants or lubricant.
15. • 4. Lubricant and Glidants: Lubricants are intended to
prevent adhesion of the tablet materials to the
surface of dies and punches, reduce inter particle
friction and may improve the rate of flow of the tablet
granulation.
Glidants are intended to promote flow of granules or
powder material by reducing the friction between the
particles.
• Example: Lubricants- Stearic acid, Stearic acid salt -
Stearic acid, Magnesium stearate, Talc, PEG (Polyethylene
glycols), Surfactants
• Glidants- Corn Starch – 5-10% conc., Talc-5% conc., Silica
derivative - Colloidal silicas such as Cab-O-Sil, Syloid,
Aerosil in 0.25-3% conc.
16. • 5. Coloring agent: The use of colors and dyes in a
tablet has three purposes:
(1) Masking of off color drugs
(2) Product Identification
(3) Production of more elegant product
• All coloring agents must be approved and certified by
FDA. Two forms of colors are used in tablet preparation –
FD &C and D & C dyes. These dyes are applied as solution
in the granulating agent or Lake form of these dyes. Lakes
are dyes absorbed on hydrous oxide and employed as dry
powder coloring.
• Example: FD & C yellow 6-sunset yellow,FD & C yellow 5-
Tartrazine ,FD & C green 3- Fast Green,FD & C blue 1-
Brilliant Blue ,FD & C blue 2 - Indigo carmine
17. 6. Flavoring agents: For chewable tablet-
flavor oil are used
7. Sweetening agents: For chewable tablets:
Sugar, mannitol.
• Saccharine (artificial): 500 time’s sweeter than
sucrose
• Disadvantage: Bitter aftertaste and
carcinogenic
• Aspartame (artificial)
• Disadvantage: Lack of stability in presence of
moisture.
18. Lactose
• Non-reactive in anhydrous or hydrous form
• Hydrous form undergoes maillard reaction leading to
browning and discoloration of certain drugs, hence
anhydrous form is preferred
• But anhydrous form picks up moisture when exposed to
humidity.
• In wet granulation, hydrous lactose of two varieties are
used 60-80 mesh (coarse) and 80-100 mesh (regular)
grade.
• Lactose formulation show good release.
• Low cost diluent
• But may discolor in presence of amine drug bases or salts
of alkaline compounds
19. Spray dried lactose
Lactose is placed in aqueous solution, removed
impurities and spray dried
Mixture of large alpha monohydrate crystals and
spherical aggregates of smaller crystals
Good flowability but less compressibility
Poor dilution potential
Less compressibility upon initial compaction
Problem of browning due to contamination of 5-
hydroxyfurfural which was accelerated in the presence
of basic amine drugs and catalyzed by tartarate, citrate
and acetate ions
20. – Fast-Flow lactose (early 1970s)
• Spherical aggregates of microcrystals lactose
monohydrate
• Held together by a higher concentration of glass
(amorphous lactose)
• Much more compressible
• Highly fluid
• Non hygroscopic
• Tablets are three to four times harder than regular
spray dried
– Tabletose: aggromerate form of lactose
• More compressible than spray dried but less
compressible than Fast Flo lactose
21. Starch
• Can be corn, wheat or potato source
• USP grade of starch has poor flow & compression
characteristics
• Also has high moisture content between between 11 & 14
%.
• Specially dried starches also have standard moisture level
of 2-4%
• Therefore used in wet granulation
22. Sta 1500:
• Intact starch grains and ruptured starch grains that
have been partially hydrolyzed
and subsequently aggromerated
• Free flowing, self lubricating, containing slightly
high MC (10 %)
• Due to which does not form hard compacts
• Dilution potential is minimal, not generally used as
filler-binder but as filler disintegrant
• Retains the disintegrant properties of starch without
increasing the fluidity and compressibility of the
total formulation
• Flow promoters like colloidal silicon dioxide is
needed.
• Lubricants tend to dramatically soften tablets
containing high concentrations of Starch 1500
23. Dextrose
90-92% dextrose, 3-5% maltose and the remainder
higher glucose polysaccharides
Available both anhydrous and a hydrate product
Excellent compressibility and good flow
Contain 8-10% moisture and may increase hardness
after compression
Largest particle size, therefore blending problem may
occur
Cerelose is also avilable
24. Cellulose
– Microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel)
Derived from a special grade of purified alpha wood
cellulose by severe acid hydrolysis to remove the
amorphous cellulose portions, yielding particles
consisting of bundles of needlelike microcrystals
• PH101 powder and PH102 are the two grades
available.
• most compressible with Highest dilution potential
• A strong compact formed due to strong hydrogen
bonds ,and ruptured due to passage of water
• Extremely low coefficient of friction, no lubricant
• Not used as only filler because of its cost and
density,
• used in the conc of 10-25% as a filler-binder-
disintegrant,
26. Powders intended for compression into tablets must
possess two essential properties
Powder fluidity or flowability
• The material can be transported through the hopper into the
die
• To produce tablets of a consistent weight
• Powder flow can be improved mechanically by the use of
vibrators, incorporate the glidant
Powder compressibility
• The property of forming a stable, intact compact mass when
pressure is applied is called powder compressibility
Easily mixed with other particles
Homogenous colouring etc
Friction and adhesion properties
27. Slugging (dry granulation) :
a. Blend is forced into dies of large capacity tablet
press and compacted using flat faced punches.
b. compacted masses are called slugs and process is
called slugging.
c. Slugs milled or screened to produce good free
flowing granules for compression.
28. Dry compaction/Roller compaction
On a large scale compression granulation can also be
performed on a roller compactor.
Granulation by dry compaction can also be achieved by
passing powders between two rollers that compact the
material at pressure of up to 10 tons per linear inch.
Materials of very low density require roller compaction to
achieve a bulk density sufficient to allow encapsulation or
compression.
One of the best examples of this process is the
densification of aluminum hydroxide.
Roller compactor is capable of producing as much as 500
kg/hr of compacted ribbon like materials which can be
then screened and milled in to granules for compression.
29. Limitations of dry granulation
1- Dry granulation often produces a higher percentage of
fines or non compacted products, which could
compromise the quality or create yield problems for the
tablet.
2- It requires drugs or excipients with cohesive properties.
30. Wet granulation
The most popular method (over 70% )
Granulation is done
To prevent segregation of the constituents of the powder
blend.
To improve flowability of the powder mixture.
To improve the compaction characteristics of the powder
mixture due to better distribution of the binder within
the granules.
To improve homogeneity and thus ensure content
uniformity
Wet granulation is a process of using a solution binder to the
powder mixture. The amount of liquid can be properly
managed; overwetting = the granules to be too hard,
underwetting =too soft and friable.
Aqueous solutions are safer than other solvents.
31. Procedure of Wet Granulation
Step 1: Weighing and Blending
Step 2: wet granulate prepared by adding the binder solution
Step 3: Screening the damp mass into pellets or granules (6-
8mesh)
Step 4: Drying the granulation in thermostatically controlled
ovens
Step 5: Dry screening:
Step 6: Mixing with other ingredients: A dry lubricant,
antiadherent and glidant is added to the granules either by
dusting over the spread-out granules or by blending with
the granules. Dry binder, colorant or disintegrant may be
also added in this step.
Step 7: Tableting: Last step in which the tablet is fed into the
die cavity and then compressed.
32. Limitations of wet granulation:
1- Multiple separate steps are involved.
2- Not suitable for heat and moisture sensitive drugs
Equipments
Traditionally, dry mixing in wet granulation process
has been carried out using,
Sigma blade mixer,
Heavy-duty planetary mixer.
33. List of equipments used in granulation
High Shear granulation:
i)Little ford Lodgie granulator
ii)Little ford MGT granulator
iii)Diosna granulator
iv)Gral mixer
Granulator with drying facility:
i) Fluidized bed granulator
ii) Day nauta mixer processor
iii) Double cone or twin shell processor
iv) Topo granulator
Special granulator:
i) Roto granulator
ii) Marumerizer
34. Compression
Tableting procedure
Filling
Compression
Ejection
Tablet compression machines
• Hopper for holding and feeding granulation to be
compressed
• Dies that define the size and shape of the tablet
• Punches for compressing the granulation within the dies
• Cam tracks for guiding the movement of the punches
• Feeding mechanisms for moving granulation from the
hopper into the dies
35. • Single punch machine
• Multi-station rotary presses
• The head of the tablet machine that holds the upper
punches, dies and lower punches in place rotates
• As the head rotates, the punches are guided up and
down by fixed cam tracks, which control the sequence
of filling, compression and ejection.
• The portions of the head that hold the upper and
lower punches are called the upper and lower turrets
• The portion holding the dies is called the die table
36. Compression cycle
• Granules from hopper empty in the feed frame (A)
containing several interconnected compartments.
• These compartments spread the granulation over a wide
area to provide time for the dies (B) to fill.
• The pull down cam (C) guides the lower punches to the
bottom, allowing the dies to overfill
• The punches then pass over a weight-control cam (E),
which reduces the fill in the dies to the desired amount
• A swipe off blade (D) at the end of the feed frame removes
the excess granulation and directs it around the turret and
back into the front of the feed frame
• The lower punches travel over the lower compression roll
(F) while simultaneously the upper punches ride beneath
the upper compression roll (G)
37. • The upper punches enter a fixed distance into the dies,
while the lower punches are raised to squeeze and compact
the granulation within the dies
• After the moment of compression, the upper punches are
withdrawn as they follow the upper punch raising cam (H)
• The lower punches ride up the cam (I) which brings the
tablets flush with or slightly above the surface of the dies
• The tablets strike a sweep off blade affixed to the front of
the feed frame (A) and slide down a chute into a receptacle
• At the same time, the lower punches re-enter the pull
down cam (C) and the cycle is repeated
38.
39.
40. • The principle modification from earlier equipment has
been an increase in production rate which is regulated by
– Number of tooling sets
– Number of compression stations
– Rotational speed of the press
Multirotary
machineHigh speed
rotary machine
41. Processing problems
• Capping is the partial or complete separation of the
top or bottom crowns of a tablet from the main body
of the tablet.
• Lamination is separation of a tablet into two or more
distinct layers. Both of these problems usually result
from air entrapment during processing.
• Picking is removal of a tablet’s surface material by a
punch.
• Sticking is adhesion of tablet material to a die wall.
These two problems result from excessive moisture or
substances with low melting temperatures in the
formulation
42. • Mottling is an unequal color distribution on a tablet, with
light or dark areas standing on otherwise uniform surface.
This results from use of a drug with a color different from
that of the tablet excipients or from a drug with colored
degradation products.
• Weight variation-granule size distribution, poor
fiow,punch variation
• Hardness variation
• Double impression-monograms or engraving on punch