The document summarizes research on learning to write in a second language over the past two decades. It discusses three dimensions studied: (1) qualities of texts produced, (2) writing processes, and (3) sociocultural contexts. For each dimension, research has taken micro perspectives looking at individual aspects, and macro perspectives looking at holistic development over time. The research shows learners improve syntax, vocabulary usage, and cohesion in their writing, but findings vary depending on methods, contexts and learner groups. To better understand how writing develops, examining the writing process and sociocultural influences is also important.
CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTIC por VIVIANA SOCASIlaurast18
[DOCUMENT]: Universidad central del ecuador Facultad de filosofía letras y ciencia de la educación Carrera de idiomas Viviana Socasi 5to Semestre Francés
The document is from a university in Ecuador and discusses linguistics topics in 3 sentences or less:
1) It discusses the Carrera de idiomas (language career) at the Universidad Central del Ecuador's Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Science Education.
2) It mentions Viviana Socasi and notes she is in her 5th semester studying French.
3) The document provides background information on linguistic topics like phonology, morphology, syntax and related disciplines in a introductory
This document discusses linguistics and contrastive linguistics. It provides background on the fields and their goals. Linguistics is the scientific study of language and languages, while contrastive linguistics specifically compares two or more languages to understand their differences and similarities. The fields aim to better understand how humans communicate through language and to apply those understandings to areas like language teaching and learning.
This document outlines the basis for teaching contrastive linguistics to students of applied linguistics and foreign language learners. It discusses how contrastive analysis can be used to 1) identify differences between a learner's mother tongue and target language, 2) explain potential difficulties for second language learners, and 3) devise language learning materials and activities to help learners develop autonomous learning skills in the foreign language. The contrastive linguistics syllabus would cover topics like lexis, sounds, syntax, grammar, terminology, and sentence structure. The methodology involves using the contrastive method to compare aspects of the mother tongue and target language.
Research Article by ETAYWE AWNI Potential Differences in Adult Male Jordanian...Awni Etaywe - S. M.
This document summarizes a research article that investigated the potential differences in how adult male Jordanian learners of English employ different linguistic knowledge sources (morphology, phonology, syntax, and semantics) when acquiring new English words incidentally. The study presented 16 Jordanian participants with a lexical inference test to examine which linguistic knowledge sources they relied on. Results showed they most heavily and successfully relied on semantics, followed by morphology, with the least reliance on syntax and most misleading reliance on phonology. The frequency and effectiveness of using each linguistic knowledge source differed between participants, which may be attributed to differences in their length of English learning experience.
The document discusses several key topics in linguistics:
1. It defines linguistics as the scientific study of language and outlines some preliminary notions in the field.
2. It provides an overview of the different branches and subfields of linguistics such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and computational linguistics.
3. It examines contrastive linguistics and comparative linguistics, which analyze differences and similarities between languages.
This document discusses the concepts of linguistic competence and communicative competence in language learning. It defines linguistic competence as knowledge of a language's formal rules of grammar and phonology. Communicative competence goes beyond this to include social and cultural knowledge needed for effective communication. It identifies four components of communicative competence: possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness. The notion of communicative competence has influenced applied linguistics, shifting approaches to teaching English and other languages from a focus solely on mechanics to developing broader communication abilities.
1. Contrastive analysis involves comparing pairs of languages to identify their differences and similarities, with the goal of informing fields like language teaching and translation. It provides a link between linguistic theory and practical application.
2. In the mid-20th century, contrastive analysis was explicitly formulated and widely used to predict difficulties in foreign language learning based on comparisons of the native language and target language. However, it lacked foundations in learning psychology and its predictions proved unreliable.
3. More recent contrastive analysis focuses less on direct applications and more on theoretical questions of why languages differ, informed by linguistic typology. It aims to increase language awareness for learners rather than predict errors.
This document discusses different types of grammar including prescriptive, descriptive, and pedagogical grammars. It addresses issues in describing grammar such as which rules to describe, varieties of language, and the relationship between form and function. The document also covers limitations of grammatical descriptions, including the interdependence of grammar and lexis. Finally, it discusses how grammar is learned and approaches to teaching grammar, such as input flooding, guided participation, and feedback.
CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTIC por VIVIANA SOCASIlaurast18
[DOCUMENT]: Universidad central del ecuador Facultad de filosofía letras y ciencia de la educación Carrera de idiomas Viviana Socasi 5to Semestre Francés
The document is from a university in Ecuador and discusses linguistics topics in 3 sentences or less:
1) It discusses the Carrera de idiomas (language career) at the Universidad Central del Ecuador's Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Science Education.
2) It mentions Viviana Socasi and notes she is in her 5th semester studying French.
3) The document provides background information on linguistic topics like phonology, morphology, syntax and related disciplines in a introductory
This document discusses linguistics and contrastive linguistics. It provides background on the fields and their goals. Linguistics is the scientific study of language and languages, while contrastive linguistics specifically compares two or more languages to understand their differences and similarities. The fields aim to better understand how humans communicate through language and to apply those understandings to areas like language teaching and learning.
This document outlines the basis for teaching contrastive linguistics to students of applied linguistics and foreign language learners. It discusses how contrastive analysis can be used to 1) identify differences between a learner's mother tongue and target language, 2) explain potential difficulties for second language learners, and 3) devise language learning materials and activities to help learners develop autonomous learning skills in the foreign language. The contrastive linguistics syllabus would cover topics like lexis, sounds, syntax, grammar, terminology, and sentence structure. The methodology involves using the contrastive method to compare aspects of the mother tongue and target language.
Research Article by ETAYWE AWNI Potential Differences in Adult Male Jordanian...Awni Etaywe - S. M.
This document summarizes a research article that investigated the potential differences in how adult male Jordanian learners of English employ different linguistic knowledge sources (morphology, phonology, syntax, and semantics) when acquiring new English words incidentally. The study presented 16 Jordanian participants with a lexical inference test to examine which linguistic knowledge sources they relied on. Results showed they most heavily and successfully relied on semantics, followed by morphology, with the least reliance on syntax and most misleading reliance on phonology. The frequency and effectiveness of using each linguistic knowledge source differed between participants, which may be attributed to differences in their length of English learning experience.
The document discusses several key topics in linguistics:
1. It defines linguistics as the scientific study of language and outlines some preliminary notions in the field.
2. It provides an overview of the different branches and subfields of linguistics such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and computational linguistics.
3. It examines contrastive linguistics and comparative linguistics, which analyze differences and similarities between languages.
This document discusses the concepts of linguistic competence and communicative competence in language learning. It defines linguistic competence as knowledge of a language's formal rules of grammar and phonology. Communicative competence goes beyond this to include social and cultural knowledge needed for effective communication. It identifies four components of communicative competence: possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness. The notion of communicative competence has influenced applied linguistics, shifting approaches to teaching English and other languages from a focus solely on mechanics to developing broader communication abilities.
1. Contrastive analysis involves comparing pairs of languages to identify their differences and similarities, with the goal of informing fields like language teaching and translation. It provides a link between linguistic theory and practical application.
2. In the mid-20th century, contrastive analysis was explicitly formulated and widely used to predict difficulties in foreign language learning based on comparisons of the native language and target language. However, it lacked foundations in learning psychology and its predictions proved unreliable.
3. More recent contrastive analysis focuses less on direct applications and more on theoretical questions of why languages differ, informed by linguistic typology. It aims to increase language awareness for learners rather than predict errors.
This document discusses different types of grammar including prescriptive, descriptive, and pedagogical grammars. It addresses issues in describing grammar such as which rules to describe, varieties of language, and the relationship between form and function. The document also covers limitations of grammatical descriptions, including the interdependence of grammar and lexis. Finally, it discusses how grammar is learned and approaches to teaching grammar, such as input flooding, guided participation, and feedback.
Corpus Approaches to the Language of Literature 2008Martin Wynne
An overview of current approaches to the study of literature which make use of the techniques, tools and resources of corpus linguistics. Written and presented in 2008.
Philology, also known as historical linguistics, studies language change and relationships. Linguistics analyzes languages from various perspectives including applied, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, anthropological, computational, and contrastive linguistics. Contrastive linguistics compares languages to determine similarities and differences, which can help with language teaching.
This document provides information about a student named Kevin Fernando Yépez Huertas who is in the 5th class of French at the Universidad Central del Ecuador, Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Education Sciences, School of Languages. It discusses several key branches of linguistics including sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, anthropological linguistics, and applied linguistics. It also contrasts comparative linguistics with contrastive linguistics and discusses fundamental teaching in contrastive linguistics.
This document discusses the pedagogical implications of contrastive analysis for teaching English as a second language. Contrastive analysis involves comparing the differences and similarities between a learner's first language and the target language. Understanding these differences can help teachers identify potential problem areas for learners and help learners avoid transferring rules from their first language incorrectly. The document also discusses various linguistic aspects like phonology, syntax and pragmatics that teachers can analyze using contrastive analysis to inform their lesson planning. Overall, contrastive analysis provides useful information for both teachers and students to improve English language learning.
This document provides an overview of various lexical concepts that can be investigated using a corpus including: phrase, phraseology, collocation, colligation, word formation processes (compounding, blending, derivation, acronyms, clipping), lexical sets (synonyms, antonyms), polysemy, and conversion between word classes. It defines each concept and provides examples found in a corpus, typically including the word and the number of concordance hits. The document discusses how corpora can provide objective evidence to study the frequency and patterns of lexical items in a language.
The document discusses the usefulness of corpora for language teaching and learning. It explains that corpora allow researchers to make generalizations about language as a whole by analyzing large collections of authentic texts. In contrast to relying only on intuitions, corpora provide evidence of real language usage through numerous examples from different contexts. This helps address misconceptions and test assumptions. The document also provides guidance on developing classroom corpora and considerations for corpus design and effective use in materials and investigations.
This document summarizes a study that examines the relationship between oral and written discourse in second language English speakers. The study hypothesizes that there is a positive working relationship between the two. Data was collected from a French doctoral student, including a writing sample and recorded speech sample. While the results showed a weak relationship, analysis of the speech without fillers revealed native-like patterns. The document reviews theories on language acquisition and the influence of first language on second language learning.
The document provides information about the 2011 STAAR English II assessment for Texas students. It will assess students' understanding of literary and informational texts across several genres. Reporting categories include understanding analysis across genres, understanding and analysis of literary texts, and understanding and analysis of informational texts. Specific skills that will be assessed include vocabulary, comprehension, analysis of themes, structures of different text types, and use of textual evidence.
Investigating the Integration of Culture Teaching in Foreign Language Classroom: A Case Study
Dr. Samah Benzerroug (Department of English) & Dr. Souhila Benzerroug (Department of French),
Teacher Training College of Bouzareah, Algiers, Algeria
Many scholars argue that language and culture are closely related to each other and hence the teaching of a foreign language cannot take place without the teaching of its corresponding culture which helps promoting language learning and enhancing learners’ motivation and performance (Corbett, J. (2003); (1996); Hinkel, E. (1999); Kramsch, C. (2006)). This being the case, the present study aims at putting emphasis on the importance and significance of integrating culture teaching in foreign language classroom in the Algerian school. It seeks to investigate whether foreign language teachers grant significant value and interest to the foreign language culture. Therefore, a descriptive analysis of the English and French textbooks of the secondary education was carried out to identify and examine the way the cultural dimensions are being dealt with. In addition, a survey was conducted by addressing a questionnaire to a number of secondary school teachers of English and French to investigate to what extent they consider culture teaching in their classroom. The research results revealed that despite the fact that there is a move towards fostering culture teaching, the textbooks still offer few tasks that deal with cultural aspects and teachers are still unfamiliar with the techniques to promote it in the classroom, thus they neglect culture teaching and prefer to focus on other aspects in the class like accuracy, fluency and language skills development. In light of these findings, a number of considerable implications and recommendation are presented to foreign language teachers and language policy decision-makers to stress the importance of integrating culture teaching and adequately implement it in the classroom.
Keywords: Foreign Language, Culture, Teaching, Integrating, Classroom
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
SSLW 2014 Presentation: Lexical Diversity, Sophistication, and Size in Academ...Melanie Gonzalez
This presentation reports on a study that compares the extent to which vocabulary size, lexical diversity, and lexical sophistication contribute to academic writing proficiency. Results suggest that lexical diversity has a greater impact on writing score over vocabulary size and lexical sophistication. Implications for practice and further analysis are discussed. Presented November 15, 2014 at the 2014 Symposium on Second Language Writing at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, USA.
David hirsh current perspectives in second language vocabulary research 2012Sokreth Dos
This chapter discusses current themes and possible new directions in second language vocabulary research. Key current themes explored include measuring vocabulary knowledge through vocabulary size and depth tests, investigating the nature of word knowledge along receptive-productive and partial-precise dimensions, examining the effects of incidental and explicit learning, and identifying suitable words for language learning through word lists. Potential new areas of research include better understanding the transfer of word knowledge from receptive to productive use, the concept of partial versus precise word knowledge, measuring differences in depth of vocabulary knowledge, and exploring vocabulary as interconnected semantic networks rather than isolated word forms.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, where two varieties or languages coexist within the same community but serve different functions. Diglossia was defined by linguist Charles Ferguson, and examples include Standard German and Swiss German, Standard French and Haitian Creole, and Attic and Demotik Greek. In many Arab communities, Standard Arabic serves formal, religious, and literary functions while local spoken forms are used for conversations and informal contexts. The high and low varieties are associated with different social statuses and prestige.
This document summarizes a study on code-switching between Yoruba and English among bilingual students in Nigeria. The study investigated the reasons for code-switching, the influence of parents, teachers, and peers on students' language choices, and provided recommendations. Questionnaires were administered to 200 high school students from 4 schools. The results showed that students with less formal education code-switch more than those with more formal education. It also showed that most teachers code-switch in the classroom. Additionally, it revealed that the language used at home influences students' language use. The study concluded that code-switching can become a habit if not addressed, and discouraging its use informally could help communication.
This document discusses different approaches to grammar including formal grammar, functional grammar, and corpus linguistics. It addresses how grammar is studied from the perspectives of morphology, syntax, phonology, semantics and pragmatics. The document also contrasts Chomsky's focus on grammatical competence versus functional grammarians' emphasis on language use and communicative purpose. It notes debates around teaching grammar for communication and the role of focus on form, interaction, and discourse.
This document discusses the use of corpus linguistics in language teaching and learning. It provides examples of how corpora can be used for vocabulary acquisition, grammar instruction, and developing classroom activities. Specific corpora mentioned include the British National Corpus and the International Corpus of Learner English. Benefits of corpus linguistics include helping learners understand typical language use and aiding in lifelong language learning.
Unit 5 an additive approach to planning in plurilingual classroomsJordi Seriols
1. The document discusses theories of language acquisition including additive bilingualism, the common underlying proficiency theory, and interactionism.
2. Additive bilingualism enriches learners through additional languages without replacing the mother tongue, whereas subtractive bilingualism replaces the first language.
3. The common underlying proficiency theory holds that languages share common cognitive skills and exposure to multiple languages promotes academic development in both.
This chapter discusses the importance of teaching academic writing skills to non-native English speaking students. It notes that the number of international students and immigrant students enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities is significant and growing. It also acknowledges the proliferation of courses, textbooks, and programs aimed at teaching academic writing to these students. However, it argues that simply applying approaches used to teach native English speakers is not effective for non-native students. Instead, extensive instruction in academic vocabulary, grammar, and discourse is essential to develop proficiency in academic writing in a second language.
Corpus Approaches to the Language of Literature 2008Martin Wynne
An overview of current approaches to the study of literature which make use of the techniques, tools and resources of corpus linguistics. Written and presented in 2008.
Philology, also known as historical linguistics, studies language change and relationships. Linguistics analyzes languages from various perspectives including applied, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, anthropological, computational, and contrastive linguistics. Contrastive linguistics compares languages to determine similarities and differences, which can help with language teaching.
This document provides information about a student named Kevin Fernando Yépez Huertas who is in the 5th class of French at the Universidad Central del Ecuador, Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Education Sciences, School of Languages. It discusses several key branches of linguistics including sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, anthropological linguistics, and applied linguistics. It also contrasts comparative linguistics with contrastive linguistics and discusses fundamental teaching in contrastive linguistics.
This document discusses the pedagogical implications of contrastive analysis for teaching English as a second language. Contrastive analysis involves comparing the differences and similarities between a learner's first language and the target language. Understanding these differences can help teachers identify potential problem areas for learners and help learners avoid transferring rules from their first language incorrectly. The document also discusses various linguistic aspects like phonology, syntax and pragmatics that teachers can analyze using contrastive analysis to inform their lesson planning. Overall, contrastive analysis provides useful information for both teachers and students to improve English language learning.
This document provides an overview of various lexical concepts that can be investigated using a corpus including: phrase, phraseology, collocation, colligation, word formation processes (compounding, blending, derivation, acronyms, clipping), lexical sets (synonyms, antonyms), polysemy, and conversion between word classes. It defines each concept and provides examples found in a corpus, typically including the word and the number of concordance hits. The document discusses how corpora can provide objective evidence to study the frequency and patterns of lexical items in a language.
The document discusses the usefulness of corpora for language teaching and learning. It explains that corpora allow researchers to make generalizations about language as a whole by analyzing large collections of authentic texts. In contrast to relying only on intuitions, corpora provide evidence of real language usage through numerous examples from different contexts. This helps address misconceptions and test assumptions. The document also provides guidance on developing classroom corpora and considerations for corpus design and effective use in materials and investigations.
This document summarizes a study that examines the relationship between oral and written discourse in second language English speakers. The study hypothesizes that there is a positive working relationship between the two. Data was collected from a French doctoral student, including a writing sample and recorded speech sample. While the results showed a weak relationship, analysis of the speech without fillers revealed native-like patterns. The document reviews theories on language acquisition and the influence of first language on second language learning.
The document provides information about the 2011 STAAR English II assessment for Texas students. It will assess students' understanding of literary and informational texts across several genres. Reporting categories include understanding analysis across genres, understanding and analysis of literary texts, and understanding and analysis of informational texts. Specific skills that will be assessed include vocabulary, comprehension, analysis of themes, structures of different text types, and use of textual evidence.
Investigating the Integration of Culture Teaching in Foreign Language Classroom: A Case Study
Dr. Samah Benzerroug (Department of English) & Dr. Souhila Benzerroug (Department of French),
Teacher Training College of Bouzareah, Algiers, Algeria
Many scholars argue that language and culture are closely related to each other and hence the teaching of a foreign language cannot take place without the teaching of its corresponding culture which helps promoting language learning and enhancing learners’ motivation and performance (Corbett, J. (2003); (1996); Hinkel, E. (1999); Kramsch, C. (2006)). This being the case, the present study aims at putting emphasis on the importance and significance of integrating culture teaching in foreign language classroom in the Algerian school. It seeks to investigate whether foreign language teachers grant significant value and interest to the foreign language culture. Therefore, a descriptive analysis of the English and French textbooks of the secondary education was carried out to identify and examine the way the cultural dimensions are being dealt with. In addition, a survey was conducted by addressing a questionnaire to a number of secondary school teachers of English and French to investigate to what extent they consider culture teaching in their classroom. The research results revealed that despite the fact that there is a move towards fostering culture teaching, the textbooks still offer few tasks that deal with cultural aspects and teachers are still unfamiliar with the techniques to promote it in the classroom, thus they neglect culture teaching and prefer to focus on other aspects in the class like accuracy, fluency and language skills development. In light of these findings, a number of considerable implications and recommendation are presented to foreign language teachers and language policy decision-makers to stress the importance of integrating culture teaching and adequately implement it in the classroom.
Keywords: Foreign Language, Culture, Teaching, Integrating, Classroom
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
SSLW 2014 Presentation: Lexical Diversity, Sophistication, and Size in Academ...Melanie Gonzalez
This presentation reports on a study that compares the extent to which vocabulary size, lexical diversity, and lexical sophistication contribute to academic writing proficiency. Results suggest that lexical diversity has a greater impact on writing score over vocabulary size and lexical sophistication. Implications for practice and further analysis are discussed. Presented November 15, 2014 at the 2014 Symposium on Second Language Writing at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, USA.
David hirsh current perspectives in second language vocabulary research 2012Sokreth Dos
This chapter discusses current themes and possible new directions in second language vocabulary research. Key current themes explored include measuring vocabulary knowledge through vocabulary size and depth tests, investigating the nature of word knowledge along receptive-productive and partial-precise dimensions, examining the effects of incidental and explicit learning, and identifying suitable words for language learning through word lists. Potential new areas of research include better understanding the transfer of word knowledge from receptive to productive use, the concept of partial versus precise word knowledge, measuring differences in depth of vocabulary knowledge, and exploring vocabulary as interconnected semantic networks rather than isolated word forms.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, where two varieties or languages coexist within the same community but serve different functions. Diglossia was defined by linguist Charles Ferguson, and examples include Standard German and Swiss German, Standard French and Haitian Creole, and Attic and Demotik Greek. In many Arab communities, Standard Arabic serves formal, religious, and literary functions while local spoken forms are used for conversations and informal contexts. The high and low varieties are associated with different social statuses and prestige.
This document summarizes a study on code-switching between Yoruba and English among bilingual students in Nigeria. The study investigated the reasons for code-switching, the influence of parents, teachers, and peers on students' language choices, and provided recommendations. Questionnaires were administered to 200 high school students from 4 schools. The results showed that students with less formal education code-switch more than those with more formal education. It also showed that most teachers code-switch in the classroom. Additionally, it revealed that the language used at home influences students' language use. The study concluded that code-switching can become a habit if not addressed, and discouraging its use informally could help communication.
This document discusses different approaches to grammar including formal grammar, functional grammar, and corpus linguistics. It addresses how grammar is studied from the perspectives of morphology, syntax, phonology, semantics and pragmatics. The document also contrasts Chomsky's focus on grammatical competence versus functional grammarians' emphasis on language use and communicative purpose. It notes debates around teaching grammar for communication and the role of focus on form, interaction, and discourse.
This document discusses the use of corpus linguistics in language teaching and learning. It provides examples of how corpora can be used for vocabulary acquisition, grammar instruction, and developing classroom activities. Specific corpora mentioned include the British National Corpus and the International Corpus of Learner English. Benefits of corpus linguistics include helping learners understand typical language use and aiding in lifelong language learning.
Unit 5 an additive approach to planning in plurilingual classroomsJordi Seriols
1. The document discusses theories of language acquisition including additive bilingualism, the common underlying proficiency theory, and interactionism.
2. Additive bilingualism enriches learners through additional languages without replacing the mother tongue, whereas subtractive bilingualism replaces the first language.
3. The common underlying proficiency theory holds that languages share common cognitive skills and exposure to multiple languages promotes academic development in both.
This chapter discusses the importance of teaching academic writing skills to non-native English speaking students. It notes that the number of international students and immigrant students enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities is significant and growing. It also acknowledges the proliferation of courses, textbooks, and programs aimed at teaching academic writing to these students. However, it argues that simply applying approaches used to teach native English speakers is not effective for non-native students. Instead, extensive instruction in academic vocabulary, grammar, and discourse is essential to develop proficiency in academic writing in a second language.
This document discusses language assessment and L2 writing assessment. It covers the general features of language assessment, defining the construct of L2 writing ability, and the framework of task characteristics. The document provides an agenda that includes introductions, defining assessment, the purpose of L2 writing assessment, assessment decisions, the target language use domain, language task characteristics, and an activity examining test items. It aims to help understand L2 writing assessment in order to make informed decisions based on assessment results.
Genre refers to major types of literature and communicative events that have recognized structures and purposes. There are three main approaches to analyzing genre: the ESP school focuses on academic genres, the Sydney school emphasizes communicative purpose and staging, and rhetorical genre studies views genres as social actions. While the approaches have differences, they also share similarities in recognizing the social dimensions and purposes of genres. Applying genre theory to pedagogy can help students develop competence in valued genres of their disciplines and communities.
Analytic scoring involves scoring separate parts or criteria of a performance or product individually and then summing the scores to obtain a total score. The document provides an example of an analytic rubric for rating composition tasks. The rubric contains five criteria: organization, logical development of ideas, grammar, punctuation/mechanics, and style/quality of expression. Each criterion is scored on a scale from 1 to 4, with descriptors provided for each level.
We’re all trying to find that idea or spark that will turn a good project into a great project. Creativity plays a huge role in the outcome of our work. Harnessing the power of collaboration and open source, we can make great strides towards excellence. Not just for designers, this talk can be applicable to many different roles – even development. In this talk, Seasoned Creative Director Sara Cannon is going to share some secrets about creative methodology, collaboration, and the strong role that open source can play in our work.
Reuters: Pictures of the Year 2016 (Part 2)maditabalnco
This document contains 20 photos from news events around the world between January and November 2016. The photos show international events like the US presidential election, the conflict in Ukraine, the migrant crisis in Europe, the Rio Olympics, and more. They also depict human interest stories and natural phenomena from various countries.
The impact of innovation on travel and tourism industries (World Travel Marke...Brian Solis
From the impact of Pokemon Go on Silicon Valley to artificial intelligence, futurist Brian Solis talks to Mathew Parsons of World Travel Market about the future of travel, tourism and hospitality.
Applying Corpus-Based Findings To Form-Focused Instruction The Case Of Repor...Justin Knight
The document summarizes a study that compared how reported speech is presented in English language textbooks versus how it is used in real language based on corpus data. The study found that textbooks focus mainly on indirect reported speech and backshifting verbs to past tense, but neglect many structures used in natural language. Corpus data from two studies of reported speech was then used to identify 10 principles for how it should be taught. The document proposes applying these corpus-based findings to design classroom activities and materials for teaching reported speech that are grounded in theories of second language acquisition.
This document discusses genre, text, and grammar as key concepts for teaching writing. It defines genre as a socially constructed type of writing with common structural and grammatical elements. A text is defined as any meaningful communication that can be recorded and analyzed. The document contrasts the differences between spoken and written language and presents four perspectives on language: context, genre, text, and grammar. It also discusses Martin's and Derewianka's models of genre and their focus on the social purpose and structure of different text types.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
This document discusses research on second language reading. It addresses several areas of interest in L2 reading, including its importance for academic learning and ability to learn independently. Key differences between L1 and L2 reading are identified, such as differing language proficiency levels and socio-cultural backgrounds. Several aspects of L2 reading are then examined in more detail, including word recognition, vocabulary knowledge, use of context, reading rate and fluency, and the role of metacognition. Research findings on each of these topics are presented and sometimes conflicting findings are noted. Throughout, the document emphasizes that results from L1 reading research may not directly apply to L2 reading due to important linguistic and individual differences between the two.
1. Studies of multi-word units using corpus data have shown that language is highly phraseological in nature, with the majority of texts composed of common words following common patterns.
2. Research into n-grams and other multi-word units has enhanced our understanding of language, showing that most everyday words do not have independent meanings but rather contribute to the meaning of larger lexical units.
3. The study of multi-word units has implications for applied fields like lexicography, language teaching, and English for academic/specific purposes by providing insights into typical phraseologies used in different contexts and genres.
This document provides an overview of the genre-based model of language. It discusses how this model sees language as a social process and understands texts based on their social context and purpose. The genre-based model analyzes language in terms of context, genre, text, and grammar. Context refers to the situation and culture where language is used. Genre describes the types of texts and their structures. Text is any complete communication, and grammar describes how texts are structured based on genre. The genre-based model aims to connect these elements to understand how language works in social situations.
This document discusses the history and definitions of communicative competence (CC) in language teaching. It describes how Hymes and Savignon defined CC as depending on social context and the cooperation of participants. Later, Canale and Swain identified four components of CC: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. The document then examines various theories and approaches related to analyzing communication and teaching languages communicatively, including discourse analysis, conversation analysis, corpus linguistics, contrastive rhetoric, pragmatics, and task-based instruction.
A Comparative Study Of The Discourse Marker Types In The Body Section Of The ...Angie Miller
The document summarizes a study that examined the types of discourse markers used in the body sections of research papers written by students from two colleges at De La Salle University in Manila. It found that students from the College of Engineering, who wrote descriptive papers, used addition and contrast markers more, while students from the College of Liberal Arts, who wrote argumentative papers, preferred addition, contrast and consequence markers. The study has implications for the teaching materials used for different fields of study.
This chapter discusses definitions of discourse and discourse analysis, including "little d" discourse referring to language in context and "big D" discourse as specialized language of social groups. It outlines structural and functional approaches to discourse analysis and describes various disciplines and main approaches. Context and models of communication are examined, including Hymes' 16 contextual features and Halliday's three parameters of context. The development of the concept of communicative competence from Hymes to Canale and Swain to Celce-Murcia is summarized.
A Genre-Based Approach To Writing Instruction In EFL Classroom ContextsKatie Naple
This summary provides an overview of a study that explored how 14 Japanese university students improved their understanding of genre structure and language features for writing argumentative essays through a 15-week English writing course using a genre-based approach.
The study administered pre- and post-surveys and analyzed students' self-reflection texts using 12 criteria to evaluate changes in their genre awareness and writing skills. The preliminary results showed that the students' comprehension of the generic structure and lexicogrammar of the target genre improved, particularly for the second and third paragraphs. Increased understanding of textual, interpersonal, and experiential meaning in the texts correlated with gains in students' self-efficacy and confidence in writing. The analysis indicated that a genre
The document discusses corpus linguistics and different types of corpora. It defines corpus linguistics as the study of language based on large collections of electronic texts, known as corpora. It describes general corpora, specialized corpora, historical/diachronic corpora, regional corpora, learner corpora, multilingual corpora, comparable corpora, and parallel corpora. It also discusses corpus annotation, concordancing, frequency and keyword lists, collocation, and software used for corpus analysis.
A Corpus Analysis Of Metadiscourse Markers Used In Argumentative Essays By Pa...Nathan Mathis
The document analyzes the use of metadiscourse markers in 124 argumentative essays written by Pakistani undergraduate students. It finds that interactive metadiscourse markers were used more frequently than interactional markers. Transition markers were the most common, while endophoric markers were least frequent. The results have pedagogical implications for understanding writing conventions and developing students' writing skills through appropriate use of metadiscourse devices.
An Exploratory Study On Authorial (In)Visibilty Across Postgraduate Academic ...Sabrina Ball
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1. Infernafional Journal
of
English Sfudies
Learning to Write in a Second Language:
Two Decades of Research
CUMMING'
ALISTER
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto
ABSTRACT
The empirical studies reviewed in this article show that over the past two decades research on
learning to write in second languages has expanded and refined conceptualizations of (a) the
qualities of texts that learners produce, (b) the processes of students' composing, and,
increasingly, (c) the specific sociocultural contexts in which this learning occurs. Research has
tended to treat each of these dimensions separately, though they are integrally interrelated.
Certain recommendations for instruction follow from this inquiry, but the conclusiveness and
comprehensiveness of such recommendations are constrained by the multi-faceted nature of
second-language writing and the extensive variability associated both with literacy and with
languages internationally.
KEYWORDS: writing, second and foreign languages, learning, instruction, research, theories.
Addressfor correspondence: Alister Cumming, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University
ofToronto, Modern LanguageCentre, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1V6, tel.: 1-416-923-6641,
ext. 2538, fax: 1-416-926-4769, e-mail: acumming@oise.utoronto.ca
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2. 2 Alisfer Cumming
1. INTRODUCTION
Sufficient research on writing in second languages has accumulated over the past two decades
to permit assessments of what this research can collectively te11 us. Many publications have
recently done so, highlighting trends in theories (e.g., Cumming, 1998; Grabe, 2001; Grabe &
Kaplan, 1996; Silva, 1990; Silva, Leki & Carson, 1997), empirical findings (e.g., Cumming,
1994; Krapels, 1990; Reichelt, 1999; Silva, 1993), implications for instruction (e.g., Ferris &
Hedgcock, 1998; Leki, 1992; Raimes, 199 1,1998), new technologies for writing (e.g., Cummins
& Sayers, 1995; Pemington, 1996, Warschauer, 1999), and assessment practices (e.g., Cumming,
1997; Hamp-Lyons, 1991; Kroll, 1998). The present article focuses specifically on learning to
write in second or foreign languages. 1 review three dimensions of writing that have featured in
published research on this topic over the past two decades. Then 1consider how analyses of these
three dimensions each produces an altemative view of instruction in second-language writing.
In reviewing publications for this article 1 have selected published empirical studies that
illuminate these themes. 1have cited research on various second or foreign languages, though the
vast majority of these publications concem writing among adults acquiring English in formal
educational contexts.
11. LEARNING TO WRITE IN A SECOND LANGUAGE
What does leaming to write in a second language involve? Most relevant research has
investigated one of three fundamental dimensions of second-language writing: (a) features of the
texts that people produce; (b) the composing processes that people use while they write; and (c)
the sociocultural contexts in which people write. Each dimension has a micro- and a macro-
perspective, viewing second-language writing either from a relatively local, episodic, or
individual basis or from a more global, sequential, or holistic viewpoint, as shown in Figure 1.
O Servicio de Publicaciones. Universidad de Murcia. All rights reserved. IJES, vol. 1 (2), 2001, pp. 1-23
3. Learning lo Write in a Second Language 3
Micro Macro
I Text Syntax & morphology Cohesive devices
I Composing
Lexis
Searches for words
Text stmcture
& syntax
Attention to ideas 8: language Revising
concurrently
Context Individual Participate in a
development discourse community
I
I
Self-image or identity
Figure 1: What does a person learn when writing in a second language?
Social change
1.1. Text Features
Considerable research has viewed writing improvement in terms of features of the texts that
second-language leamers produce. At a micro-leve1 of discourse, diverse studies have shown
second-language leamers to improve the complexity and accuracy of the syntax and morphology
in their written texts (Archibald, 1994; Bardovi-Harlig, 1995, 1997; Bardovi-Harlig & Bofman,
1989; Cumming & Mellow, 1996; Dickson, Boyce, Lee, Portal, Smith & Kendall, 1987; Harley
& King, 1989; Ishikawa, 1995; Mellow & Cumming, 1994; Perkins, 1980; Reid, 1992; Sweedler-
Brown, 1993; Weissberg, 2000). A related aspect is leamers' abilities to use a greater range of
vocabulary in their writing as their second-language proficiency increases (Engber, 1995; Grant
& Ginther, 2000; Laufer & Nation, 1995, 1999; Reid, 1986; Sweedler-Brown, 1993; but see
Cumming & Mellow, 1996). Ata macro-leve1 oftext structure, people also leam to become more
adept at signaling a hierarchy of related ideas at the beginning, end, or throughout a text (Connor,
1996; Kaldor, Herriman & Rochecouste, 1998; Tedick & Mathison, 1999, specifically by using
cohesive, functional-semantic, or various stylistic devices in their second-language texts (Allison,
1995; Jacobs, 1982; Grant & Ginther, 2000; Hyland & Milton, 1997; Intaraprawat & Steffenson,
1995; Reid, 1992; Reynolds, 1995; Schleppegrel, 1996). Such developmental pattems have been
documented in respect to discourse features unique to particular text-types, such as argumentative
(Connor & Farmer, 1990; Grant & Ginther, 2000; Varghese & Abraham, 1998; Vedder, 1999;
O Servicio de Publicaciones. Universidad de Murcia. All rights reserved. IJES, vol. 1 (2), 2001, pp. 1-23
4. 4 Alister Cumming
Yeh, 1998), autobiographical (Henry, 1996), or narrative (Albrechtsen, 1997a; Bardovi-Harlig,
1995) modes of writing, or impressionistically (with rating scales) across various kinds of writing
tasks (Cumming, 1989; Cumming & Riazi, 2000; Kaldor, Herriman & Rochecouste, 1998; Kern
& Schultz, 1992; Tarone, Downing, Cohen, Gillette, Murie & Dailey, 1993). Similarly, in tasks
where reading and writing are closely integrated (e.g., summarizing or translating), leamers tend
to become better able (as they develop individually, or in comparison to less skilled counterparts)
to use ideas, phrases, and conventions of referencing from source documents appropriately in
their written texts (Braine, 1995; Connor & Kramer, 1995; Cumming, Rebuffot & Ledwell, 1989;
Deckert, 1993; Dong, 1996; Hood & Knightley, 1991 ; Johns, 1985; Ruiz-Funes, 1999; Sarig,
1993; Tsang, 1996).
Collectively, this inquiry suggests that as people learn to write in a second language their
written texts display more sophisticated, complex syntax and morphology, a greater range and
specificity of vocabulary, and improved command over conventional rhetorical forms and over
ways of signaling the relations of their texts to other texts when performing tasks that involve
reading and writing. The conceptual orientations guiding such inquiry are text linguistics, diverse
theories of grammar (ranging from conventional descriptions to functional concepts), and
principles of rhetoric or stylistics. Researchers have typically categorized specific text features
-using measures such as tallies of occurrences, ratings against hierarchical maps or networks
of normative text structures, or type-token ratios (of text features or types of words or other
Iinguistic items to the total words in each text)- to compare groups of compositions judged to
differ in quality or to represent different stages of leaming or writing ability (Le., in cross-
sectional research designs, e.g., Cumming & Mellow, 1996; Grant & Ginther, 2000; Laufer &
Nation, 1995; Tarone et al., 1993). More rarely, researchers have studied the texts of particular
learners as they progress in their writing over time (i.e., in longitudinal research designs, e.g.,
Bardovi-Harlig, 1997; Hood & Knightley, 1991 ;Kern & Schultz, 1992). Computer programs that
tag specific text features have recently helped to facilitate such inquiry (e.g., Cumming &
Mellow, 1996; Ferris, 1993; Grant & Ginther, 2000; Reid, 1986, 1992). A limitation on these
conclusions, however, is that research on the development of second-language written texts has
tended to use differing methods of analyses and theoretical frameworks in diverse contexts,
among differing learner groups writing different types of texts. Consequently, the findings from
this research point toward possible tendencies rather than firm, predictable generalizations.
Moreover, evidence from text analyses is inherently restricted in its capacity to explain why
people learn. To understand why and how people may change their writing behaviors, researchers
have had, in addition to text analyses, to examine the processes of composing and of social
interaction that influence people's textual choices.
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5. Learning to Write in a Second Language 5
11.2. Composing Processes
Investigating how second-language learners compose their written texts is a second major
dimension investigated in recent research. In addition to simply describing what these composing
processes are, numerous studies have made inferences about learned abilities by contrasting
performance among two groups of learners who have greater and lesser proficiency, skill, or
experience in second-language writing (¡.e., novice-expert studies, aiming to determine what may
constitute more skilled processes of second-language composing) or by contrasting the same
leamers writing comparable tasks in their first and second languages (¡.e., within-subjects
designs, aiming to determine what is unique about writing in the second language, compared to
the first language). Cognitively-oriented studies have examined leamers' ongoing thinking
episodes or decision-making while composing, finding salient composing behaviors among
skilled second-language learners to be frequent or fluent searches for appropriate words or
phrases (Butler-Nalin, 1984; Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001 ;Cumming, 1989,1990; Silva, 1992; Qi,
1998, Uzawa, 1996) and attention to ideas and to language forms concurrently while making
decisions (Bell, 1995; Cumming, 1989, 1990; Swain & Lapkin, 1995; Vignola, 1995; Whalen
& Menard, 1995). Such micro-level, heuristic decision-making about writing tends to occur in
brief, sporadic episodes while composing, so it contrasts with more extended, macro-leve1
strategies for composing that people use to prepare for, draft, revise, and complete their writing
tasks. At this macro-level, as with mother-tongue composing, more skilled second-language
writers tend to do more effective and extensive planning (either prior to or while composing,
Akyel, 1994; Cumming, 1989; Roca de Larios, Murphy & Manchón, 1999; Sasaki, 2000;
Zimmerman, 2000), revising (Hall, 1990; Manchón, Roca de Larios & Murphy, 2000; Urzua,
1987; Zamel, 1983), andlor editing (Polio, Fleck & Leder, 1998; Walters & Wolf, 1996) oftheir
texts than do their less skilled counterparts. Like unskilled writers in their mother tongues, people
who do not write well in the second language are often unable to (or unsure of how to) plan,
manipulate, monitor, or revise their ideas or texts effectively (Bosher, 1998; Clachar, 1999;
Cumming, 1989, 1995; Hall, 1990; Porte, 1996; Raimes, 1987; Sasaki, 2000; Victori, 1999;
Uzawa, 1996; Zimmerman, 2000).
That individuals compose in their second languages in fundamentally the same way as
they do in their mother tongues has been demonstrated in numerous studies and diverse contexts
(Akyel & Kamisli,1997; Albrechtsen, 1997b; Amdt, 1987; Berman, 1994; Cumming, Rebuffot
& Ledwell, 1989; Edelsky, 1986; Hall, 1990; Pennington & So, 1993; Skibniewski &
Skibniewska, 1986; Uzawa, 1996; Vedder, 1999, cf. Krapels, 1990). But in the second-language,
learners seem to devote much attention while they write to decisions about the form ofthe second
language orto finding resources such as appropriate words, which may constrain their attention
to formulating complex ideas, their capacity to function in situations of high knowledge
demands, and the extent of their planning oftheir writing (Fagan & Hayden, 1988; Jacobs, 1982;
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6. 6 Alisler Cumming
Jones & Tetroe, 1987; Qi, 1998; Roca de Larios et al., 1999; Uzawa & Cumming, 1989; Whalen
& Ménard, 1995). An intriguing behavior documented in various studies is that of using the
resources of both first and second languages together for various strategic purposes while
composing (Akyel, 1994; Clachar, 1999; Curnming, 1989, 1990; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1992;
Lay, 1982; Manchón et al., 2000; Qi, 1998; Smith, 1994; Uzawa, 1996; Uzawa & Cumming,
1989). An upshot of this kind of inquiry has been the argument, encapsulated in Swain's (1995)
"output hypothesis", that the context of writing (particularly the time available for reflection and
revision, the goal of instantiating ideas or communication into formal text, and the necessity of
assessing hypotheses about the language before putting them down as text) presents an optimal
context to learn to use the forms of the second language, offering practice that may prompt
people to convert their acquired competence in a second language into controlled, skillful
performance (Cumming, 1990; Ringbom, 1987; Swain & Lapkin, 1995; Weissberg, 2000).
In sum, the research on composing processes suggests that as people learn to write in a
second language they gain greater control over their abilities to plan, revise and edit their texts,
to search for appropriate words and phrases (drawing on their first and second languages as
resources in the process), and to attend more often or intently to their ideas in respect to the forms
ofthe second language. In the process of doing so, people may consolidate or refine their abilities
in the second language. Because these processes are primarily mental and self-directed,
researchers have relied on methods of investigation like concurrent verbal reports, stimulated
recalls, personal journals, or interviews to elicit verbal data from people about their thinking
while they compose or recently composed. (But computer programs that monitor writers' key
strokes have started to document some of these composing and revising behaviors online, e.g.,
Li & Cumming, this volume; New, 1999; Pennington, 1993; Thorson, 2000.) These introspective
research techniques, supported by theories of cognitive problem-solving in complex tasks (e.g.,
Ericsson & Simon, 1984), have been applied with many insights into the study of mother-tongue
writing processes by Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987), among others. But their limitations are
neatly summarized in Smagorinsky (1994, i.e., learners' "reactivity" to researchers' purposes,
restrictions and variability in people's capacities to report on their thinking, and distortions of
natural contexts for composing). In addition to the limitations inherent in verbal reports, such
inquiry has mostly: (a) required tightly-controlled, experimental conditions for writing; (b) found
it challenging to explain exactly how specific composing processes lead to particular qualities
of written products; and (c) involved relatively small numbers and select groups of learners (see
article by Manchón, this volume). For these reasons, and in efforts to understand how learning
to write in a second language naturally occurs and develops, considerable research in the past
decade has sought to investigate the social contexts of composing.
O Servicio de Publicaciones. Universidad de Murcia. All rights reserved. IJES, vol. 1 (2), 2001, pp. 1-23
7. Learning lo Write in a Second Language 7
11.3. Contexts of Writing
A third dimension investigated in recent research concerns the social contexts of second-
language writing. At a micro-level, learning from this viewpoint is a process of individual
development in particular social contexts. Accordingly, research has taken the form of case
studies focused on the situations and personal challenges a person, or small, related group of
people, experiences writing in the second language. Research in naturally-occurring contexts for
second-language writing has produced vivid accounts of people studying at universities, colleges,
or schools (Angelova & Riazantseva, 1999; Casanave, 1995; Currie, 1993; Johns, 1992; Leki,
1995; Leki & Carson, 1997; Losey, 1997; Maguire, 1997; Prior, 1998; Riazi, 1997; Spack, 1997;
Zamel, 1995); in their home and community settings (Cumming & Gill, 1991; Long, 1998;
Losey, 1997); or working at specific job functions (Parks, 2000; Parks & Maguire, 1999; Pogner,
1997; Thatcher, 2000), including scholars trying to publish in their second language (Casanave,
1998; J. Flowerdew, 1999,2000; Gosden, 1996; Matsumoto, 1995). Learning to write inasecond
language from this perspective highlights concepts such as acculturation into particular discourse
communities (cf. Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995) through processes of legitimate peripheral
participation (e.g., J. Flowerdew, 2000; Parks, 2000, cf. Lave & Wegner, 1991), individual
coping and learning strategies (e.g., Leki, 1995; Riazi, 1997), and the long-term, shifting
formation of individual identities (e.g., Casanave, 1992; Lam, 2000; Maguire, 1997; Spack,
1997). In other words, writing in a second language forms a focus for individuals to learn ways
of cooperating with and seeking assistance from diverse people and resources; to adapt to and
reflect on new situations, knowledge and abilities; to negotiate relations ofwork and power; and
to gain and modiS, new senses of self.
Most of these studies have adopted an ethnographic orientation and research methods,
involving long-term engagement and emergent inquiry using observations, i n t e ~ i e w s ,and
discourse analysis. But few of these studies have-as Ramanthan and Atkinson (1999) argued-
actually attempted to present a full-scale ethnography of second-language writing. Nonetheless,
Edelsky (1986) and Losey (1997) do aspire to comprehensive, critically conscious accounts of
biliteracy learning and education among specific Hispanic populations in the U.S., and Prior
(1998) and Spack (1997) provide thorough, long-term accounts of leaming to write in particular
university settings. In turn, certain studies have started to depict the administrative policies,
structures and practices of second-language writing, providing a macro-perspective on the social
contexts of second-language writing through comparative surveys and analyses (Atkinson &
Ramanathan, 1995; Pennington, Costa, So, Shing, Hirose &Niedzielski, 1997; Powers & Nelson,
1995; Williams, 1995). Macro-perspectives on social contexts have featured explicitly in literacy
research directed at social change, following ideas of Freire (e.g., 1970), to improve learning
opportunities for specific minority groups otherwise not well served by education. Projects such
as Auerbach (1992), Cumming and Gill (1991), and Moll (1989) have devised unique
O Servicio de Publicaciones. Universidad de Murcia. All rights reserved. IJES, vol. 1 (2), 200 1, pp. 1-23
8. 8 Alisler Cumming
educational programs to build on the cultural knowledge of disadvantaged groups, and then the
researchers have docurnented how these programs promoted participants' long-term literacy
achievernent. These projects demonstrate that transforming conventional structures of education
to suit rninority cultural values can improve diverse people's writing and other dirnensions of
educational opportunity, definitions of self-worth, and societal participation. However, few such
ethnographies or participatory research projects have been conducted, seemingly because of the
intense, sustained research effort they require. Although they have provided profound insights
into the societal dirnensions of second-language literacy, these contextually-oriented studies are
inherently local and lirnited, the evidence they present is often highly interpretive and selective
(given the cornplexity of factors related to second-language writing in any one context), and
rnuch necessarily relies on learners' self-analysis of their own circurnstances and abilities.
111. IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTION
What do these studies of learning te11 us for teaching? Most irnportantly, they help to
conceptualize what leaming to write in a second language entails. But they do so in three
relatively distinctive, though necessarily interdependent, ways (as summarized in Figure 1).
Instructional rnodeling of second-language writing probably should include not just rnodeling of
text forms but also rnodeling of cornposing processes and of the socio-cultural purposes and
functions that writing in the second language serves (Cumming, 1995).
Analyses of text features have guided rnany recornrnendations for teaching second-
language writing in respect to genre form and function (e.g., Connor & Farmer, 1990; Feez,
1998; L. Flowerdew, 2000; Hamrnond; 1987; Hyon, 1996; Johns, 1997; Paltridge, 1997; Swales,
1990). A rnicro-perspective on language forms also inforrns conventional rnethods of
gramrnatical instruction and pedagogical practices for responding to students' writing. But
determining exactly how teachers' feedback on students' writing rnay influence their learning has
proved difficult to evaluate. Teachers' feedback is so personalized, subtle, task-specific, and even
inconsistent that it is dificult to docurnent, categorize, and interpret (Conrad & Goldstein, 1999;
Ferris, 1995, 1997; Ferris, Pezone, Tade & Tinti, 1997; Hyland, 1998; Truscott, 1996; Warden,
2000; Zamel, 1985, and see Goldstein, 2001, for a review). Students have diverse preferences
for feedback, based on their prior education, tasks, and future intentions, so they act on such
feedback in diverse ways (Cumrning & Riazi, 2000; Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994, 1996;
Radecki & Swales, 1988; Saito, 1994). Because such feedback typically occurs after initial
drafting it rnay have lirnited irnpact on students' online cornposing processes (Curnrning & So,
1996; Polio, Fleck & Leder, 1998).
Many assessrnent practices, curriculaand educational policies have taken for granted that
the text features of second-language writers develop significantly and systematically as students
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9. Learning lo Wrile in a Second Lanzuaze 9
progress, but it is worrying that no theories and few large-scale research projects have accounted
comprehensively for grammatical or rhetorical development in second-language writing, nor have
explicit models appeared to explain exactly how instmction might influence such developments
(Archibald, 1994; Cumming, 1997,2001 ;Cumming & Riazi, 2000; Cummins & Swain, 1986;
Grabe, 2001 ; Polio, 1997; Sasaki & Hirose, 1996; Silva, 1993; Valdés, Haro & Echevarriarza,
1992). At the same time, research on composing processes has promoted a widespread consensus
that instruction should emphasize students' plaming, infomation-gathering, revision, and editing
of drafts of writing (Pennington et al., 1997; Raimes, 1991, 1998). Because many unskilled
second-language writers lack or fail to implement certain composing strategies (as demonstrated
in research on their composing processes), a promising area of inquiry has been to provide
instruction that prompts learners to set long-tem goals for themselves to improve their writing.
In these circumstances, many second-language leamers have been able to define, monitor, and
accomplish their personal goals successfully while they compose (Cumming, 1986,1995; Donato
& McCormick, 1994; Hoffman, 1998; Sasaki, 2000).
Research that extends the focus of leaming (beyond the text and individual composing)
to social contexts has helped to analyze the range of classroom situations and variables that may
foster leaming to write in a second language. These include the spoken discourse of teaching
(Cumming, 1992; Losey, 1997; Shi, 1998; Weissberg, 1994), teachers' beliefs about writing
(Clachar, 2000; Li, 1996; Shi & Cumming, 1995); the dynamics of peer or group responses to
writing (Berg, 1999; Carson & Nelson, 1996; Connor & Asenavage, 1994; de Guerrero &
Villamil, 1994; Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1992; Lockhart & Ng, 1995; Mangelsdorf &
Schlumberger, 1992; McGroarty & Zhu, 1997;Nelson & Cars'on, 1998; Nelson& Murphy, 1992;
Paulus, 1999; Shi, 1998; Stanley, 1992; Tang & Tithecott, 1999; Villamil & de Guerrero, 1996;
Zhang, 1995), written interactions between teachers and students through dialogue journals
(Nassaji & Cumming, 2000; Peyton & Staton, 1993), one-on-one tutoring (Aljaafreh & Lantolf,
1994; Cumming & So, 1996), and teacher-student conferences (Goldstein & Conrad, 1990;
Patthey-Chavez & Clare, 1996; Patthey-Chavez & Ferris, 1997). Although only a few of these
studies have adopted a specifically Vygotskian perspective (e.g., Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; de
Guerrero & Villamil, 1994; Nassaji & Cumming, 2000), their collective findings can be
summarized in Vygotskian terms: These various types of situated interactions, if pitched
appropriately and meaningfully at leamers' zones of proximal development, can help in diverse
ways to scaffold people's acquisition of text forms, composing processes, and purposeful social
interactions through writing in the second language.
Obviously writing and second languages are multi-faceted phenomena. Their variability
is perhaps the greatest constraint on obtaining a comprehensive view of leaming them that might
unequivocally infom teaching. As Hornberger (1989) and Homberger and Skilton-Sylvester
(2000) have demonstrated, biliteracy varies along severa1 continua-personally, interpersonally,
culturally, and geographically-in terms of the characteristics and development of individuals,
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10. contexts of language use, relations of status and power, and facets of communication media. It
is little wonder then that diverse cultural values inform even the measures used to assess
achievement in second-language writing (Connor-Linton, 1995; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1996;
Song & Caruso, 1996) and variability is inherent across different types of conventional
assessment tasks for second-language writing (Koda, 1993; Reid, 1992; Way, Joiner & Searnan,
2000). In view of this complexity and variability, it is perhaps to be expected that over the past
two decades of research amulti-faceted, rather than unified, perspective has emerged on leaming
to write in second languages.
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