4. Grammar and Grammars
The word ‘grammar’ means different
things to different people.
Grammar refer to the rules of grammar
found mainly in written language.
An objective description of the
structures of language, with no
comment concerning correct versus
incorrect forms.
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6. Grammar and Grammars
Grammar with rules that make a
distinction between correct and
incorrect forms.
This approach codifies certain distinction
between standard and non standard
varieties as correct. Or ‘good’, English
and the non standard as incorrect, or
‘bad’ English.
Prescriptive
Grammar
A.
06 (Schmitt,2020)
7. Grammar and Grammars
Grammar that do not make these
distinctions and that aims to describe
language as it actually used.
Representation of speakers'
unconscious knowledge or ‘mental
grammar’.
This approach focuses on describing
how native speakers actually do speak
and does not prescribe how they out to
speak.
The cow ate the corn. Grammatical
Ate the corn the cow. Ungrammatical
Descriptive
Grammar
B.
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8. Grammar and Grammars
Type of grammar designed for the needs
of second-language students and
teachers.
It resembles a descriptive grammar
more than prescriptive one, especially in
terms of the range of structure covered.
Applied linguistics must be concerned
that students not only can produce
grammatical structure that are formally
accurate; students must be able to use
them meaningfully and appropriately as
well.
Pedagogical
Grammar
C.
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10. Which rules to describe?
Rules
General rules
Would have tried
Have would tried
Apparent exceptions
He leaves.
Irregularities
Ten miles makes for a long hike.
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11. Which rules to describe?
Varieties
Standard ‘formal’
Non-Standard ‘Informal’
Formal vs functional
Type vs token
Sentence vs discourse grammar
Written vs Spoken
Styles
11 (Schmitt,2020)
13. Form and function
Formal grammar is concerned with the
forms themselves and with how they
operate within the overall system of
grammar.
Generative theory by Chomsky.
The language is represented as a
speaker’s mental grammar, a set of
abstract rules for generating
grammatical sentences.
mental grammar ‘competence’
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14. Form and function
Hymes (1972), developed a functional
model that focuses more on appropriate
use of language.
‘communicative competence’
‘“ the capabilities of a person ’, a
competence which is ‘ dependent upon
both [tacit] knowledge and [ability for]
use “.
It includes the grammatical competence
+ pragmatical competence.
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15. Form and function
Influence of different model of grammar
can be seen in syllabus design.
Many ESL and EFL grammar text are
based on structural syllabus design
defined in formal terms that presented
according to structural categories.
Noun, verbs, and sentence types.
National syllabus are defined in
functional terms.
would you like X?
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16. Form and function
Newer linguistic theories that attempt to
combine form and meaning are
cognitive grammar and construction
grammar.
construction grammar integrate form
and meaning at various levels of
complexity from the morphology of
words to phrases and clauses.
Sam mailed Paul a letter.
Paul texted Sam a replay.
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17. Form and function
Celce-Mucria and Larsen Freeman give a
strong support to view that a formal or
functional approach should not be taken
to the exclusion of the other.
Grammar involves a three dimensions:
(morpho)syntax, semantics, and
pragmatics.
Learners need not to only achieve a
certain degree of formal accuracy , but
that they also need to use structures
meaningfully and appropriately as well.
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19. Type versus Token
Description of language have different
outcome depending on weather they
account for :
types of linguistic elements in the abstract.
tokens of linguistic elements as they
actually occur in context of use.
Type description presents a broad order
of structure and give each equal weight.
Token description might reveal that some
of these were rare of occurrence.
The Bank of English Corpus (COBUILD)
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21. Discourse Grammar
Discourse means the organization at level
above sentence or individual conversational
turn.
Speakers and writers make grammatical
choices that depend on how they construe
and wish to represent the context and on
how they wish to position themselves in it.
speakers use the past perfect tense to give a
reason or justification for the main events of
narrative.
Sentence-initial adverbial clauses serve an
important discourse organizing role by linking
information in the main clauses with information in
the previous discourse.
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22. (Hughes and
McCarthy,1998:270)
Speaker 1: Got on better with Glynobob I think
and John Bish let me and Trudie sleep in his
bed last time we went up to Brunel or the one
time when we stayed in Old Windsor with them
cos erm ben had given us his room cos he’d gone
away for the weekend and erm it was me and
Trudie just in Ben’s room and John Doughty had
a double bed so he, John Bish had a double bed
so he offered us the this double bed between us
and then slept in Ben’s room cos Ben and PQ
had gone away for the weekend.
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23. (DeCarrico,2000:194)
Thoreau had called the seacoast a ‘wild rank
place … with no flattery in it.’ Homer in his later
years, consciously cultivated a briney persona
that matched [the seacoast] roughness. When
he was not communing with the roaring sea from
his studio, on Prout's Neck, Maine, he was off in
the Adirondacks with his brother, Charles,
angling for trout.
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25. Spoken and Written
Grammar
Carter and McCarthy believe that the
differences between spoken and
written grammar are important for
pedagogical grammars since
‘description’ omit many common
features of everyday informal grammar
and usage.
More-formal vocabulary
children (written) kids (spoken)
Complete sentences
I wanted to go home. (written)
Because I wanted to. (spoken)
25 (Schmitt,2020)
28. The Interdependence of
Grammar and Lexis
It is very difficult to isolate grammar and
lexis into completely separate
categories, because grammar does not
exist on its own.
It is interdependent with lexis and, in
many cases, grammatical regularity and
acceptability are conditioned by words.
walked – wondered
drank – became
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30. Lexicogrammar: The problem
of defining Boundaries
Prefabricated ‘chunks’ of language.
Native speakers use many fixed unites
that appear to be intermediary between
lexical words and grammatical structure.
Prefabricated ‘formulaic sequences’
‘lexical phrases’ differ from other
formulaic language in that they have
associated discourse function.
by the way
a _______ ago a day ago
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32. Learning Grammar
‘habit formation’
o It help students to overcome the habits
of their L1 and inculcate those of the
target language.
o repetition, transformation, question
and answers.
‘rule formation’
o Students formulated, tested, and
revised hypotheses about grammatical
structure in the target language.
o Written grammar exercise.
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33. Learning Grammar
Communicative (implicit learning)
o Grammar was best learn subconsciously.
o Students engaged in understanding the
meaning of the language to which they
introduced.
Non-liner acquisition
o Grammar is not acquired in a liner fashion.
o Learner's utterance are overgeneralizations.
eated : ate
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34. Learning Grammar
Emergentist
o Language learning is an iterative
process, revisiting the same or similar
territory again and again.
o Grammar learning is facilitated by the
frequency use of the forms in the
language to which the learner is
exposed.
Learners will be able to complete the
exercise fully when their focus on
grammar.
formulaic utterance
Good afternoon
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36. Teaching Grammar
‘input flooding’
o Increasing the number of times that
students encounter the target structure in a
particular text.
Guided Participation
o Teacher leads students to awareness that
they did not have before.
Peer Interactions
o ‘Consciousness raising tasks’
o Students are given data and are
encouraged to discover the grammatical
generalization for themselves.
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37. Teaching Grammar
‘Input-Processing Tasks ’
o Students are guided to pay attention to
particular aspects of the target language
rather than working on explicit rule learning
and application that differ between L1 and
L2.
Grammaring
o Students engaged in communicative task
where it is necessary to use certain structure
to complete it.
read a map.
Meaningful iteration
talk about their family members
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38. Teaching Grammar
Feedback is a necessary part of grammar
instruction.
o Help students to correct themselves.
‘spiral syllabus’
Students should spend their time engaged
in meaningful tasks and in learning content.
Teachers can create supplementary tasks
and activities to ensure that they receive
attention when the teacher has determined
that the students are ready to learn them.
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