The Akkadian Empire was the first empire in Mesopotamia, established in 2334 BCE by Sargon I who conquered Sumeria and created a dynasty that ruled the region for generations. The Akkadians introduced concepts like absolute monarchy and divine kingship, believing the king was a living god. The empire reached its height under Naram-Sin in the 22nd century BCE and artistic expression flourished. The empire later collapsed but was followed by a resurgence of Sumerian culture under rulers like Gudea who revived religious traditions and commissioned statues and temples.

1. The Akkadian Empire

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In 2334 BCE Sargon I, a semitic ruler from the north, conquered Sumeria and created
an empire with its capital in the northern city of Akkad

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Sargon founded a dynasty of rulers that ruled the region for several generations

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The Akkadians introduced a new concept of absolute monarchy, and they were the first
ancient civilization to practice divine kingship, where the king is worshipped as a living
god

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The Akkadian empire reached its height under Sargon’s grandson Naram-Sin (r. c. 2260-
2233), and artistic expression achieved a new level of refinement in its use of
naturalism.

6. Head of an Akkadian Ruler
From Nineveh
2250-2500 BCE
Iraq Museum, Baghdad
This head represents an Akkadian ruler, possibly Sargon himself. It was originally part of
a full-length statue that was destroyed during the sack of Nineveh in 612 BCE

7. It was common in ancient societies for conquering armies to efface images of rulers (the
Romans did this regularly), and it reflects the ancient belief that images had did more
than just “reproduce” the individual represented

8. “In the ancient Near East, the concept of “representation” involved a complex
relationship between the image and the entity it represented. The image of a person was
more than a symbol standing for that person. Rather, it embodied some of the real
presence of the individual and could, therefore, act as substitute for him or her . . . . to
damage the sculpture would have been to harm the king himself.” Art Through Time: A
Global View (Annenberg)

9. US Marines chain the head of a statue of Saddam Hussein before pulling it down in Baghdad's al-Fardous square 09 April 2003.
Image source: Independent.com
Symbolic acts of image destruction remain potent today, as can be seen in the historic
moment when U.S. Marines toppled the statue of Saddam Hussein in 2003 as a way of
publicly declaring his defeat

10. Head of an Akkadian Ruler
From Nineveh
2250-2500 BCE
Iraq Museum, Baghdad
The portrait was made with copper, using a hollow-cast technique that requires a
considerable amount of sophistication. It is the first life-size portrait of a ruler using this
technique

11. Head of an Akkadian Ruler
From Nineveh
2250-2500 BCE
Iraq Museum, Baghdad
The distinguishing feature of work is its extraordinary naturalism, and recognizable
portrait-like features

12. Sumerian votive statues were not true “portraits” – they were not intended to “look like”
the individual represented — but in Sargon’s portrait, the face is highly individualized,
with its distinctively shaped nose, full lips, and high cheekbones

13. The proportions are realistic (for example, the eyes are not unnaturally enlarged), and
and while votive statues were typically generic (they could be anyone, really), the
Sargon portrait is highly individualized, focusing on the unique features and personality
of the ruler

14. The naturalism of the facial features is nevertheless combined with abstraction, seen in
the stylized patterning of the beard and hair, and the perfectly arched eyebrows

15. All of this contributes to an effect of “perfection” that communicated the ruler’s power
and charisma

16. The youthful and handsome features of the face, combined with the impossibly well-
groomed hair and beard, creates an impression of greatness that might be likened to the
melammu (supernatural glamour) thought to be possessed by the gods
Idealism:
Malammu: supernatural aura
“glamour”

17. So with the rise of divine kingship, we see a shift from a focus on the gods, to a
glorification of earthly rulers who possess some of the “glamour” and charisma
associated with divinity

18. Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran,
2254–2218 BCE. Pink sandstone, approx. 6’ 7” high.
Louvre, Paris
Naramsin was the grandson of Sargon, and this carved victory stele commemorates his
victory over the Lullabi, a neighboring tribe

19. Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran,
2254–2218 BCE. Pink sandstone, approx. 6’ 7” high.
Louvre, Paris
It represents a new approach to narrative art, since the artist has abandoned the
traditional register format to focus on a single action packed moment of drama

20. Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran,
2254–2218 BCE. Pink sandstone, approx. 6’ 7” high.
Louvre, Paris
And what a drama it is! Our eyes are drawn immediately to the hero of the story, first
because of the use of hierarchic scale (he is the largest figure in the scene), but also
because of his dramatically noble pose

21. Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran,
2254–2218 BCE. Pink sandstone, approx. 6’ 7” high.
Louvre, Paris
Every figure in the scene is also looking at him, which reinforces his role as the focal
point

22. Armed with a bow and arrow (recalling the hunting god on the Seal of Adda), Naramsin
boldly leads his army into battle

23. Most importantly, he wears a horned crown, which identifies him as a god (this is
actually the first time a king was depicted as a god in art)

24. His importance is also indicated by Rambo-like muscular physique, which makes him
appear like a comic book superhero

25. Trampling over his enemies, he ascends the mountain towards the heavens, where two
stars, representing astral deities, symbolize divine approval of his conquest

26. Naramsin’s soldiers follow him up the mountain, mimicing his pose of supreme
confidence, as they march unopposed against the enemy

27. In contrast, the enemy soldiers cower in fear, while two soldiers fall headlong down the
side of the mountain

28. The orderly discipline of Naramsin’s soldiers contrasts dramatically with the general
chaos amongst the enemy troops, leaving little doubt in the viewer’s mind about the
outcome of the battle

29. When we looked at the Head of an Akkadian Ruler, we examined a significant shift from
the de-personalized, and generic approach of Sumerian Votive statues towards a more
naturalistic style that glorifies the unique personality of the ruler

30. A similar change can be observed if we compare the treatment of the figure of Naramsin,
with the earlier image of Ur-Nanshe, the Sumerian king of Lagash

31. Both figures are depicted in the composite pose, where legs, hips, and head are seen
from the side, but the shoulders are twisted frontally

32. But while Ur-Nanshe’s body is is rendered in a cartoonish manner, with little sense of
anatomy, we see considerable attention to realistic musculature in the body of Naramsin

33. Dr. Irene Winter argues that the stele’s emphasis on Naramsin’s well-toned physique
and virility was as much an expression of his divinity as the horned crown he wears on
his head:
“What, the modem viewer may ask, is Naram-Sin of Agade doing on his Victory
Stela, displaying for us not only his victory in battle but his well-rounded buttocks,
his muscled calves, his elegantly arched back, his luxuriant beard? More
Baryshnikov than Stallone, he is nonetheless, within our cultural lexicon of value,
well proportioned, lithe, fit, and simply “divine”!”
Irene Winter, “Sex, rhetoric and the public monument: the alluring body of Naram-
Sin of Agade.”

34. Thanks for listening
Next up: Neo-Sumeria

35. Neo-Sumeria

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The Akkadian Empire collapsed in 2150 BCE, and was followed by a resurgence of
Sumerian culture in southern Mesopotamia

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In the city of Lagash, Gudea revived the Sumerian tradition of kingship, sponsoring
architecture and art that marked a return to religious piety towards the gods

38. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
Gudea was the Ensi of the city of Lagash and reigned from 2150-2125 BCE

39. Statue of Gudea, c. 2120 BCE
Louvre
He commissioned a large number of votive statues to be placed in temples as offerings
to the gods

40. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
In contrast to the god-like personality favored by the Akkadians, Gudea’s statues
emphasize his piety, while also communicating his fitness as a ruler

41. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
In this seated statue, Gudea wears a shepherd’s cap rather than the horned cap of
divinity

42. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
The shepherd’s cap promoted the idea of the ruler as a provider and protector of his
people, rather than a conqueror or god-like hero

43. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
His serene expression, pious gesture, and large eyes revives the tradition of Sumerian
votive statues, and stands in marked contrast to the “Rambo” image of kingship
promoted by the Akkadians

44. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
Nevertheless, the statue is carefully “coded” to show that Gudea has indeed been
endowed with the attributes of a strong leader

45. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
His muscular right arm connotes strength, while his large ears symbolize his ability to
listen and make wise judgments, and his broad chest communicated his strength and
vitality

46. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
The material and proportions of the statue may also be symbolic. The sculpture was
made from diorite, a very hard stone, and we know that Gudea explicitly requested this
material for all of his statues

47. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
The hard stone symbolized the “stability” and “durability” that his reign had brought after
the instability following the fall of the Akkadian Empire

48. Seated Statue of Gudea, 2150-2100 B.C.
Neo-Sumerian period
Diorite; H. 17 3/8 in. (44 cm)
Metropolitan Museum
But the hard stone may also have had a more practical function. Since it was common
in the ancient world for royal statues to be destroyed or re-used (bronze and copper can
be melted down), Gudea chose a material that would would resist such acts of
destruction.

49. The stout proportions of the body, with its overly large hands, feet, and head, may also
have been a deliberate attempt to communicate a sense of unchanging permanence
and order

50. The cuneiform inscription on his skirt lists the many temples he built, proclaiming Gudea
as “the man who built the temple; may his life be long”

51. Headless Statue of Gudea, c. 2120 BCE
Louvre Museum
In this statue, he holds the architectural plans of a temple on his lap

52. Headless Statue of Gudea, c. 2120 BCE
Louvre Museum
As we have seen, the building of temples was one of the most important obligations of
Sumerian kingship, and Gudea’s devotion to this practice exemplifies his deliberate
return to tradition

53. Ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 BCE
Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jmcfall/46769922/in/photostream/
The Ziggurat originated during the Sumerian period, but this ziggurat, which is one of the
best preserved, was built during the Neo-Sumerian period, when there was a revival of
Sumerian traditions after Akkadian rule

54. Ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 BCE
Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jmcfall/46769922/in/photostream/
It was begun by the Neo-Sumerian king Ur-Nammu, who ruled in the city of Ur c. 2047-
2030 BCE, and was completed by his successor

55. Ur-Nammu Stela,
University of Pennsylvania Museum
The Ziggurat was dedicated to
the moon god Nanna, who we
see depcited here in the Stela
of Ur-Nammu, seated on a
throne and wearing a multi-
tiered crown of horns

56. Ur-Nammu Stela,
University of Pennsylvania Museum
The god hands over the rod
and ring, symbols of power, to a
fragmentary figure (presumably
Ur-Nammu), indicating that his
authority is given to him by the
gods (a motif that we will see
again in the Stele of
Hammurabi)

57. Ur-Nammu Stela,
University of Pennsylvania Museum
On the register below, we see
Ur-Nammu again, carrying the
building tools he will use to
build his temple

58. Ur-Nammu Stela,
University of Pennsylvania Museum
The significant thing to note is
that Ur-Nammu makes no
claims to divinity, as Naramsin
had done

59. Ur-Nammu Stela,
University of Pennsylvania Museum
Like Gudea, he wears a simple
shepherd’s cap, rather than a
horned crown

60. Ur-Nammu Stela,
University of Pennsylvania Museum
And like Gudea, he reaffirms
the traditional role of the
Sumerian king as a builder of
temples

61. Thanks for listening
Next up: The Stele of Hammurabi

62. The Babylonian Empire

63. Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg
An agricultural crisis and foreign invasions led to the collapse of the Neo-Sumerian
kingdoms, and a new Amorite kingdom was established in Southern Mesopotamia, with
its capital at Babylon

64. Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg
The most famous Amorite ruler was king Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750 BCE), who
expanded the city-state of Babylon to include all of Southern Mesopotamia,
bringing the region under centralized authority once again

65. Stele with Law Cod of Hammurabi, c. 1750 BCE
Basalt, 7” 4”h
Louvre
Hammurabi is best known for drafting the first law code in history – the Code of
Hammurabi – marking a significant advancement in civilization.

66. Stele with Law Cod of Hammurabi, c. 1750 BCE
Basalt, 7” 4”h
Louvre
Hammurabi’s law code is inscribed on a tall stele, above which is a relief carving
depicting the king in the company of the god Shamash

67. Shamash, the sun god is
seated on a throne, wearing a
long beard and a multi-tiered
crown of horns
Shamash

68. The seat of his throne
resembles the façade of a
temple, while his footrest
resembles mountainous
terrain

69. Rays of light emanate from his shoulders, indicating his role as the
god of light, as well as the god of justice who “illuminates” truth

70. He extends to Hammurabi the so-called “rod and ring,” traditional
symbols of the power invested in kings by the gods

71. The rod and ring were builders tools: architects used a stake and piece
of rope to set the foundation of a building straight, so the symbolism here
is the concept of justice, where the ruler’s duty is to “make things straight”

72. Hammurabi
Hammurabi stands before the god, performing a ritual gesture of
“touching the nose” to show humility before the god

73. Like the god, he wears a long beard, but his costume conforms to long
established tradition

74. Like Gudea, he wears a simple shepherds cap, and his long robe is
draped over one shoulder -- exposing his muscular right arm, which was
symbolic of physical strength

75. While the heads of the two figures are on the same level (which would
suggest equality) the god is seated -- so if he stood up he would tower
over Hammurabi in size!

76. This subtle method of visual “coding” creates a complex narrative of the
king’s relationship to the god: while his authority comes directly from the
god, and he enjoys the unique privilege of having a private audience with
him, the god’s ultimate superiority is maintained through the use of
hierarchic scale, and the horned head gear, which is worn by the god
alone

77. This relief also demonstrates innovations in pictorial representation

78. Shamash’s headdress (a multi-tiered row of horns signifying his divinity)
is seen in true profile, rather than twisted perspective

79. And the eyes of both figures are seen from the side rather than frontally

80. This enhances the message of “intimacy” between the king and the god,
and also creates psychological drama, as the two figures look each other
directly in the eyes, and seem to interact

81. Thanks for listening
Next up: Assyria