This document discusses affixation in the English language. It begins by defining an affix as an additional constituent appended at the beginning or end of another constituent that modifies or alters its meaning. It then distinguishes between roots, stems, and bases. The major types of affixation are identified as prefixation, suffixation, and infixation. Prefixation and suffixation are discussed in further detail, including their classification based on syntactic categories and semantic functions. Examples are provided to illustrate class-maintaining and class-changing affixation.

1. Affixation
For B.A. (Hons) VI Semester
Course: Linguistics and the Structure of English Language- II
Course Code: BAE 323
Teacher: Namrata Rathore Mahanta (English Section, MMV)
Materials are presented in an educational context for use of
students of B.A. (English Honours), Banaras Hindu University
during COVID 19 lockdown and
should not be used for any commercial purpose.

2. What is an affix?
“Bound morphs which do not realize
unanalysable lexemes are called affixes.”
- Bauer
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p. 20

3. In simple words
• An affix does not exist in isolation (bound)
• An affix does not represent a lexeme that is a root (roots are
further unanalysable).
• To consolidate the second point, you may recall that there are
certain bound roots in English which are not to be confused
with affixes. (go to page 10 of the unit on Morpheme)
• An affix is thus additional constituent appended at the
beginning or end of another constituent.
• An affix modifies or alters the meaning of the constituent to
which it is attached.

4. Disambiguation: Root/Stem/Base
These terms are variously defined by linguists- as in previous units, here too we will follow
Bauer’s nomenclature
• Root-
“A root is a form which is not further
analysable either in terms of derivational or
inflectional morphology. It is that part of a
word-form that remains when all affixes have
been removed. A root is the basic part always
present in a lexeme.”
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p. 20

5. Stem
• Stem: “A stem is of concern only when dealing
with inflectional morphology. It may be – but
need not be – complex, either in that it
contains derivational affixes (as does govern .
ment) or in that it contains more than one
root (as does red . skin). Inflectional (but not
derivational) affixes are added to it: it is the
part of the word-form which remains when
all inflectional affixes have been removed.”
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p. 20

6. Base
• Base: “A derivationally analysable form to
which derivational affixes are added can only
be referred to as a base.”
In simple words this means that a stem can be
a complex form because it can contain
derivational affixes or more than one roots.
However a word-form can ‘become’ a stem
only when a new form is added to it through
inflection (and not through derivation)
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p.21

7. In the word-form ‘untouchable’ why
‘touchable’ cannot be the root or stem
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p.20-21.

8. In the word form ‘governments’ why
can ‘government’ not be root/base
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p.20.

9. Bauer distinguishes between Root/Stem/Base
through the word-form ‘untouchables’
Bauer, Laurie. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 1983, p.20-21.

10. Affixation is one of the major
processes of word formation
Three major types have been identified:
Prefixation Suffixation Infixation
(not used in English)
Usage reported in expletives
Bound morphemes are
attached in initial position
to create a new lexeme
Bound morphemes are
attached in final
position to create a new
lexeme
Bound morphemes are
attached in between to
create a new lexeme
Example: dis-
as in dislike
Example: -dom
as in freedom
Example: -blooming-
as in absobloomin(g)lutely*
(in English ‘blooming’ is used
as an expletive – he is a
blooming nuisance.)
* Hear Eliza Doolittle sing -https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRbBegjoLU8&feature=youtu.be

11. Affixation in English
Affixes
Prefixes
Derivational
Class
Maintaining
Class
Changing
Suffixes
Inflectional
Derivational
Class
Maintaining
Class
Changing
FCF ICF
Affixes form
classical sources

12. Prefixation
• Prefixation in English is essentially derivational.
• Prefixes result in the creation of new lexemes
• Prefixes may be classified in two ways
Accord. to syntactic Accord. to semantic
category function
(Bauer, 1983) (Quirk &Greenbaum, 1973)
(affixes can also be classified according to their origin- Latin, Greek,
Germanic etc. However we are not going to take that up here)
For examination (200 words) mention both classifications but describe only syntactic (Bauer)

13. Syntactic classification of prefixes
• The syntactic category (noun/verb etc) of the new
lexeme created through prefixation can be of two
types-
• It can remain the same
(for example: Prefix+Noun= Noun).
This is called Class-Maintaining Derivational Prefixation
• It can be changed
(for example: Prefix + Noun= Verb).
This is called Class-Changing Derivational Prefixation.

14. Class Changing Prefixation
• It is a process of derivational affixation which
produces lexemes that belong to a different
grammatical category.
• This type of prefixation is limited in English.

15. Some examples of Class-Changing
Prefixes in English
a: a + sleep(N/V) =asleep(Adj.)
be: be + friend (N) = befriend (V)
en: en + snare (N)= ensnare (V)

16. Class Maintaining Prefixation
• It is a process of derivational affixation which
produces lexemes which belong to the same
grammatical category
• Prefixation in English is largely class
maintaining type.
Example: {in} + {definite} = indefinite (new lexeme)
Adj. Adj.

17. Classification of Class-Maintaining Prefixes in English
(Bauer, 1983, p.217)
Bauer classifies these into seven broad groups:
1. Used exclusively with Noun base: arch-, mini-, step-
(archbishop, minibus, stepmother)
2. Used exclusively with Verb base: de- (declassify)
3. Used exclusively with Adj. base: a-, cis-, extra-
( atypical, cislunar, extramarital)
4. Used with N and V base: fore-, re-, mis-
(foreman, foreground, recycle, mislead, misfortune)
5. Used with N and Adj. base: in-, mid-, ex-
(in-text, indefinite, mid-morning, mid-victorian, ex-student)
6. Used with V and Adj. base: circum-
(circumnavigate, circumpolar)
7. Used with N, V. and Adj.: counter-, dis-, co-,inter-,sub
counterculture, counterdemonstrate, counterproductive,
discomfort, disarm, dishonest
co-author, co-exist, codominant
inter-caste, interlock, interdependent
sub-station, sublet, subterranean
This basic outline addresses the objectives of this course. Students who wish to read in detail must
consult the sourcebook.

18. Semantic Classification of Prefixes
(Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973, p. 431)
• Negative prefixes- un-, non-, in-, dis-
unfair, non-smoker, insane, disloyal, amoral
• Reversative prefixes- un-, de-, dis-
untie, defrost,discoulour
• Pejorative prefixes- mis-, mal-, pseudo-
misconduct, malfunction, pseudo-intellectual
• Prefixes of degree or size- arch-,super-out-, sur-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper-, ultra-, mini-
arch-enemy, superman, outlive, surtax, substandard, overconfident, undercook, hypercritical, ultra-violet,
miniskirt
• Prefixes of attitude- co-, counter, anti-, pro-
co-pilot, counter-revolution, anti-missile, pro-communist
• Locative prefixes- sub-, inter- trans-
subconscious, international, transatlantic
• Prefixes of time and order- fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, re-
foretell, pre-marital, post-war, ex-husband, re-evaluate
• Number Prefixes – uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly-
unilateral, monotheism, bilingual, dicotyledon, multi-racial, polysyllabic
• Other prefixes- auto-, neo-, pan-, proto-, semi-, vice-
autobiography, neoclassical, pan-Indian, prototype, semicircle, vice president
• Conversion prefixes- be-, en-, a- (note that all three are class changing)
becalm, enslave, afloat

19. Suffixation
Suffixation in English can be inflectional as well as derivational.
Suffixes
New lexemes
(DERIVATIONAL suffixation)
of the same
grammatical category
(CLASS MAINTAINING)
of different
grammatical category
(CLASS CHANGING
Word-form of the same lexeme
(INFLECTIONAL suffixation)
Always class
maintaining

20. Inflectional Suffixation
When suffixation results in a word-form that belongs to the same
grammatical category, the process is called ‘Inflectional Suffixation’
(This occurs only in inflectional categories such as tense, person, case,
number)
Example:
Walk + -s= walks ✓
Walk + -ing= walking ✓
Walk + -ed= walking✓
But Walk + -er = walker X inflectional
Walk (N) - an act of travelling, a route or path
Walker (N)- one who walks
(-er is not an inflectional suffix because a new lexeme- walker is created)

21. Derivational Suffixation
• When suffixation results in the formation of a new
lexeme , the process is called ‘Derivational
Suffixation’.
• If the new lexeme belongs to the same grammatical
category- Class maintaining
For example King (N) + -dom = Kingdom (N)
• If the new lexeme belongs to a different grammatical
category- Class changing
For example- King(N) + -ly = Kingly (Adj.)

22. Elementary Classification of Suffixes in English

23. Some Examples of Class Maintaining
Derivational Suffixation
Noun to Noun Adjective to Adjective
-dom: king, kingdom
-iana: Gandhi, Gandhiana
-ette: kitchen, kitchenette
-hood: girl, girlhood
-let: owl, owlet
-ship: kin, kinship
-ish: green, greenish
-ly: good, goodly not used in
modern English
-some: queer, queersome
Note: Unlike Romance Languages, English does not have Verb to Verb class
maintaining derivations
There are many words which occur in more than one grammatical category – let us
take the following examples of the suffix –ward in ‘homeward’ from OED
It can be a N to Adj. process (their homeward journey)
It can also be N to Adv. process (they set off homeward)

24. Examples of Class Changing
Derivational Suffixation-1
Suffixes which form Nouns
Verb to Noun Adj. to Noun
-ation: rotate, rotation -cy: militant, militancy
-ee: employ, employee -ness: dark, darkness
-al: arrive, arrival -hood: false, falsehood
-er: kill, killer -ist: social, socialist
-ment: manage, management -th: warm, warmth
Suffixes which form Verbs
Noun to Verb Adjective to Verb
-ize: Indian, Indianize -en: wide, widen
-er: walk(n), walker -ify: null, nullify

25. Examples of Class Changing
Derivational Suffixation-2
Suffixes which form Adjectives
Noun to Adjective Verb to Adjective
-al: glottis, glottal -able: believe, believable
-esque: picture, picturesque -less: count, countless
-less: home, homeless -ful: resent, resentful
-en: wood, wooden -ive: generate, generative
-ic: algebra, algebraic -ant/-ent: absorb, absorbant
Suffixes which form Adverbs
Noun/ Adj. to Adverb
-ward: home, homeward -ly: nice, nicely -wise: length, lengthwise

26. Problems posed by affixes from other languages
There are many words in English which are-
1. Borrowed from other languages
2. Created by using bases from other languages
Such words raise a problem-
Should we consider these as roots or as affixes?
1. If we try to consider these as roots- we realize that they do not occur independently *
2. If we try to consider these as affixes- they surprise us combining with similar affixes
without involving any root. ( how can there be a lexeme made of two affixes, root
missing?)**
Hence they are given a separate nomenclature- They are called- Combining Forms
*Example- cavalcade
caval is not a lexeme of English, caval – is a bound root that occurs in many English words.
Its etymology can be traced from Latin to Italian, to French to English
** Example- hydrophilic/hydrophile
similarly hydro and phile both are not lexemes of English, both are bound roots and
together they have formed a lexeme.
* Examples from Bauer p. 226

27. Combining Forms
Combining forms are elements which have their
roots in other languages. They can function as affixes
as well as roots in order to create new lexemes.
Combining forms can be classified as:
1. FCF- Final Combining Forms (behave like suffix)
2. ICF- Initial Combining Forms (behave like prefix)
3. Some ICFs and FCFs can combine to create new
lexemes

28. Examples of Combining Forms
ICF: astro-, elctro-, hydro-
Astrophysics, Electromagnetic, Hydropower
FCFs: -crat, -naut, -phile
Autocrat, cosmonaut, bibliophile
Lexemes by ICF and FCF combination
Astronaut, biocrat, electrophile,

29. Further Reading
• Adams, Valerie. An Introduction to Modern English
Word-Formation. 1973. New York: Routldge, 2013.
• Herbst, Thomas. English Linguistics A Coursebook for
Students of English. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton,
2010.
• Bauer, L. 1983. English Word-Formation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Palg, Ingo. 2003. Word Formation in English.
Cambridge: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics-
Cambridge University Press.