IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Mobile Communications 4G and 5G Effect on Coronavirus Covid 19 and other Dise...ijtsrd
This document discusses the development of mobile communications technology from 1G to 5G and their effects on human health and diseases like coronavirus. It provides a brief history of each generation from 1G to 4G mobile networks and their key features. The document then focuses on claims that 4G and 5G mobile communications systems have reduced human immunity and exacerbated the coronavirus pandemic by exposing humans to high frequency electromagnetic waves.
This document discusses wireless communication technologies. It provides an overview of wireless communication types including wired and wireless. It describes the evolution of wireless technologies through four generations (1G to 4G) and discusses multiple access techniques like FDMA and TDMA. The document also outlines advantages of wireless technologies and examples of applications including infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and WiMax.
The document summarizes the evolution of mobile phones from early two-way radios used in vehicles to modern smartphones. It traces important developments from the first mobile radio telephone services in the 1940s-1950s to early mobile phones permanently installed in vehicles. It then covers the transition to portable bag phones and the invention of the first handheld mobile phone by Motorola in 1973. The document concludes with an overview of the four generations of cellular network technology: 1G analog, 2G digital, 2.5G packet-based data, and 3G supporting high-speed data applications.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is the 3G mobile communication standard used in Europe and other parts of the world. It uses Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA) technology which spreads user signals across a wide frequency band using unique codes. UMTS allows for higher data rates and new multimedia services compared to 2G systems. Key aspects of UMTS include the use of orthogonal variable spreading factor codes to separate channels, different frequencies for uplink and downlink, and millions of unique scrambling codes to separate users. Capacity is estimated using metrics like signal to interference ratio, processing gain, and the ratio of bit energy to noise density which depends on factors like spreading factor.
How cell phone work?(mobile communication)kgaurav113
This seminar report discusses how cell phones work. It begins with an introduction that notes the widespread use of cell phones globally and provides background on mobile communications. The report then covers the history of cell phones from early mobile radio systems through each generation of cellular technology. It describes the basic components and uses of cell phones. The report explains that cell phones connect to networks of cell towers and masts to transmit and receive calls wirelessly using radio waves. It details the processes for setting up outgoing and incoming calls, including how phones register with networks and are assigned channels. The report also discusses how cell towers and networks help cellphone calls travel between locations.
The document provides a historical overview of the evolution of mobile networks from 1G to 3G. It discusses the key developments and standards for each generation including the first 1G analog networks in the late 1970s/early 1980s (NMT, AMPS, TACS), the introduction of 2G digital networks and standards in the early 1990s (GSM, CDMA, TDMA), the transition to 2.5G/2.75G networks with GPRS and EDGE in the late 1990s/early 2000s, and the launch of the first 3G UMTS networks in the early 2000s providing speeds up to 2Mbps. It also discusses the organizations involved in developing mobile communication standards like
Mobile communication systems have evolved from 1G to 4G over several generations, with each generation bringing major improvements. 1G systems provided basic mobile voice calling. 2G introduced digital networks and services like texting. 3G focused on higher speed data and the beginning of mobile broadband. 4G aims to provide high-speed broadband to support a wide range of services for high mobility applications. The document provides an overview of this evolution from 1G analog networks to the emerging 4G standards.
3G networks provide faster data transmission speeds and a wider range of services compared to previous 2G networks. 3G allows data transfer rates up to 2Mbps and introduces technologies like UMTS that support transmission speeds of up to 300Mbps. It enables advanced applications and multimedia services on mobile devices through improved spectral efficiency and network capacity.
Mobile Communications 4G and 5G Effect on Coronavirus Covid 19 and other Dise...ijtsrd
This document discusses the development of mobile communications technology from 1G to 5G and their effects on human health and diseases like coronavirus. It provides a brief history of each generation from 1G to 4G mobile networks and their key features. The document then focuses on claims that 4G and 5G mobile communications systems have reduced human immunity and exacerbated the coronavirus pandemic by exposing humans to high frequency electromagnetic waves.
This document discusses wireless communication technologies. It provides an overview of wireless communication types including wired and wireless. It describes the evolution of wireless technologies through four generations (1G to 4G) and discusses multiple access techniques like FDMA and TDMA. The document also outlines advantages of wireless technologies and examples of applications including infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and WiMax.
The document summarizes the evolution of mobile phones from early two-way radios used in vehicles to modern smartphones. It traces important developments from the first mobile radio telephone services in the 1940s-1950s to early mobile phones permanently installed in vehicles. It then covers the transition to portable bag phones and the invention of the first handheld mobile phone by Motorola in 1973. The document concludes with an overview of the four generations of cellular network technology: 1G analog, 2G digital, 2.5G packet-based data, and 3G supporting high-speed data applications.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is the 3G mobile communication standard used in Europe and other parts of the world. It uses Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA) technology which spreads user signals across a wide frequency band using unique codes. UMTS allows for higher data rates and new multimedia services compared to 2G systems. Key aspects of UMTS include the use of orthogonal variable spreading factor codes to separate channels, different frequencies for uplink and downlink, and millions of unique scrambling codes to separate users. Capacity is estimated using metrics like signal to interference ratio, processing gain, and the ratio of bit energy to noise density which depends on factors like spreading factor.
How cell phone work?(mobile communication)kgaurav113
This seminar report discusses how cell phones work. It begins with an introduction that notes the widespread use of cell phones globally and provides background on mobile communications. The report then covers the history of cell phones from early mobile radio systems through each generation of cellular technology. It describes the basic components and uses of cell phones. The report explains that cell phones connect to networks of cell towers and masts to transmit and receive calls wirelessly using radio waves. It details the processes for setting up outgoing and incoming calls, including how phones register with networks and are assigned channels. The report also discusses how cell towers and networks help cellphone calls travel between locations.
The document provides a historical overview of the evolution of mobile networks from 1G to 3G. It discusses the key developments and standards for each generation including the first 1G analog networks in the late 1970s/early 1980s (NMT, AMPS, TACS), the introduction of 2G digital networks and standards in the early 1990s (GSM, CDMA, TDMA), the transition to 2.5G/2.75G networks with GPRS and EDGE in the late 1990s/early 2000s, and the launch of the first 3G UMTS networks in the early 2000s providing speeds up to 2Mbps. It also discusses the organizations involved in developing mobile communication standards like
Mobile communication systems have evolved from 1G to 4G over several generations, with each generation bringing major improvements. 1G systems provided basic mobile voice calling. 2G introduced digital networks and services like texting. 3G focused on higher speed data and the beginning of mobile broadband. 4G aims to provide high-speed broadband to support a wide range of services for high mobility applications. The document provides an overview of this evolution from 1G analog networks to the emerging 4G standards.
3G networks provide faster data transmission speeds and a wider range of services compared to previous 2G networks. 3G allows data transfer rates up to 2Mbps and introduces technologies like UMTS that support transmission speeds of up to 300Mbps. It enables advanced applications and multimedia services on mobile devices through improved spectral efficiency and network capacity.
This PowerPoint Presentation describes about Telecommunication systems that work in Mobile Computing Technology. According to this telecommunication systems, 4 types of systems are available here. These Telecommunication Systems play an important role in Mobile Computing Technology. These are the digital Telecommunication Systems in Mobile Computing Technology
Report on evolution in technology in mobile communicationAnkit Kumar
This document provides a summary of the technologies used in telecommunication by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), one of the largest telecom service providers in India. It discusses the basic services provided by BSNL including local and long distance calling. It then describes the key components that enable basic telephony services, including exchanges, main distribution frames, and line connections. The document goes on to explain the different types of exchanges that have been used over time, beginning with manual exchanges, then moving to Strowger and crossbar exchanges, and modern digital exchanges.
This presentation provides an overview of advanced telecom technologies, including digital switching principles, fiber optics communication, mobile communication principles like GSM and CDMA, broadband DSL technologies, intelligent networks, ISDN, and next generation networks. It was presented by Ashish Nandan to the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at Future Institute of Engineering and Management.
Unit 1 Introduction to wireless telecommunication system and networksAshutha K
The document traces the history and evolution of wireless communication systems from early radio experiments to modern 4G networks. It discusses key milestones like the development of 1G analog cellular networks like AMPS, their transition to 2G digital standards like GSM and CDMA, the introduction of 3G technologies enabling data and multimedia, and the advanced capabilities of 4G LTE including high data rates, quality of service, and integrated services. The document is presented as part of a lecture on wireless telecommunications systems and networks.
Mobile communications have evolved through several generations from analog to digital technologies. The first generation used analog FM technology. The second generation introduced digital TDMA and CDMA which allowed new services like data. The third generation aimed to provide higher data rates and global standards, resulting in UMTS which offered rates up to 2Mbps. The emerging 4G standard is based on LTE and WiMax and promises speeds over 100Mbps to support new mobile multimedia services.
Evolution from 1G to 4G involves major technological advancements in wireless networks. 1G networks provided basic voice calling using analog signals, while 2G introduced digital networks like GSM. 2.5G added packet-switched data to GSM. 3G networks supported higher speeds up to 2Mbps for multimedia applications. 4G aims to provide ubiquitous high-speed mobile internet access at speeds over 100Mbps through integrated technologies like OFDM, MIMO, and software-defined radio.
This document provides an overview of modern wireless communication systems, beginning with an outline of 1G, 2G, 2.5G, and 3G technologies. It then discusses 2G networks in more detail, including TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD standards used in 2G as well as pros and cons. 2.5G technologies brought increased data rates to 2G networks. 3G enabled faster speeds up to 2Mbps for voice, data, and video. The document also covers wireless fundamentals, modulation techniques including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA, and the 3G W-CDMA and UMTS standards. Finally, it summarizes the GSM system architecture, including its
This document discusses the standardization of IMT-2000, which aims to develop standards for 3G mobile networks and services in the 2000s. The objectives are to provide global services, reduce the digital divide, offer flexible services on fixed and mobile networks, and improve efficiency. IMT-2000 is expected to be dominated by data services and offer high quality voice and multimedia. Key expectations are flexibility, lower costs than 2G, improved efficiency, and global roaming. The document outlines the roles of ITU and regional standards bodies in developing IMT-2000 through consensus building and evaluations.
Wireless communication for 8th sem EC VTU studentsSURESHA V
This document provides an introduction to wireless telecommunication systems and networks. It discusses the history of wireless radio technology from ancient smoke signals to modern cellular systems. The key developments include Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, Marconi's transatlantic radio transmission, the evolution of AM and FM radio, and the cellular concept of dividing cities into cells served by low-power base stations. It also describes the modern telecommunications infrastructure, including the public switched telephone network (PSTN), public data network (PDN), signaling system 7 (SS7), broadband cable systems, and the Internet.
Opportunistic use of the 2.63.5 ghz band for broadband services in the west a...ijmnct
Wireless technology is increasing rapidly, and the vision of pervasive wireless computing and
communications offers the promise of many societal and individual benefits. While consumer devices such
as cell phones, PDAs and laptops receive a lot of attention, the impact of wireless technology is much
broader, e.g., through sensor networks for safety applications and home automation, smart grid control,
medical wearable and embedded wireless devices, and entertainment systems. One of these wireless
technologies is the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) technology. The explosion
of wireless applications in some parts of the world has created an ever-increasing demand for more radio
spectrum. This is not the case in the West African Sub-Region, especially Ghana where the 2.6GHz and
3.5GHz broadband access bands offering 190MHz and 140MHz bandwidth is underutilized. In this paper,
we look at usage of deployed 4G-WiMAX network in Ghana and advocate the need for policy to promote
the usage of licensed bands opportunistically by wireless devices and/or networks for application in
security, smart grid control, e-learning, telemedicine, e-governance, home and factory automation
This document is a report submitted by Prashant Kumar Gajendra for his MCA 2nd semester seminar on cellular communication. It provides an acknowledgment thanking various sources of information and guidance. It includes an abstract describing an overview of cellular communication and GSM. It also includes various sections on the history, generations, components, and functions of cellular networks.
Mobile broadband is becoming a reality, as the Internet generation grows accustomed to having broadband access wherever they go, Out of 5.8 billion people who will have broadband by 2017. It should surprise no one that the Smartphone revolution is fueling this growth, and by 2017, half of all mobile devices in the world will be smart phones. The key to keeping users happy is network performance and good value for the money. From the looks of it, we are on track to seeing continued network performance improvements and increasingly easier access to smart phones as developing markets hop on the bandwagon.
This document discusses mobile and cellular communications. It defines a wireless system as providing communication without wires using radio waves to transmit voice, data, internet and video signals from small, portable devices. Cellular communications allow public communication services over multiple cells using frequency reuse, while mobile communications can include public emergency services over a single frequency across an entire area. The document outlines some applications of mobile communications including in vehicles, emergencies and business, and also discusses technologies involved like Wi-Fi, digital cellular networks, and mobility in devices and people.
This document provides an overview of 4G technology, including its goals of drastically increasing data transfer speeds and reducing transmission interruptions when moving between networks. It discusses technologies that fall under the 4G umbrella such as UMTS, OFDM, MIMO, and WiMAX. It also outlines some problems with 4G including potential interference with other devices and an inability to keep up with demand growth.
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
This document discusses the evolution of wireless communication systems from 1G to 4G. It provides details on each generation including the technologies used, key standards, capabilities and comparisons. 1G systems were analog and offered basic voice calls. 2G introduced digital networks and supported limited data. 2.5G enhanced 2G for higher speeds. 3G enabled multimedia and high-speed data using standards like W-CDMA, CDMA2000 and TD-SCDMA. 4G provides speeds up to 20 Mbps for improved multimedia services on mobile networks. The document also discusses short-range wireless technologies like Bluetooth and wireless LANs that operate without licensed spectrum.
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM IN INDIAN RAILWAYS, OFCformohitchauhan
An Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber used in Indian Railways
Methods of Jointing a Fiber Optic Cable
Mechanical Splicing
Fusion Splicing
Measurement And Testing Of Signals in an OFC
Indian Railway Telephone Exchange
Digital Multiplexing Hierarchies
PDH
SDH
Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5 g CellularPoornima E.G.
This document summarizes research on using millimeter wave frequencies for 5G cellular networks as a solution to address increasing bandwidth demands. It discusses how directional antennas and wider channel bandwidth at mm-wave frequencies could enable multi-gigabit mobile data speeds. The document also reviews myths around rain attenuation at mm-wave bands and shows that for small cell sizes of 200m, rain impact is minimal. It presents motivation, methodology and initial measurement results showing 28GHz and 38GHz can be used for cellular with directional antennas.
This document provides an overview of cellular technology roadmaps and standards including LTE and UMTS. It summarizes the evolution of technologies like W-CDMA, HSPA, HSPA+ and LTE over time with increasing download/upload speeds. It describes the key aspects of LTE including OFDMA, SC-FDMA, MIMO and LTE-Advanced. It also provides an overview of UMTS architecture and air interface standards like W-CDMA, HSDPA and HSUPA.
Cellular network evolved gradually .Generations of computer network like 1st generation (1g) ,second generation (2g) evolved .Then came 3g ,4g, each time with increased speed and security
Characterization of mixed crystals of sodium chlorate and sodium bromate and ...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analysis of image steganalysis techniques to defend against statistical attac...eSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes various techniques for image steganalysis to defend against statistical attacks. It discusses how statistical properties of images can be used to detect hidden messages and describes common steganography algorithms like LSB substitution and techniques for JPEG images. It also outlines approaches for statistical embedding and detection to introduce randomness and maintain statistical distributions when hiding information in digital images.
This PowerPoint Presentation describes about Telecommunication systems that work in Mobile Computing Technology. According to this telecommunication systems, 4 types of systems are available here. These Telecommunication Systems play an important role in Mobile Computing Technology. These are the digital Telecommunication Systems in Mobile Computing Technology
Report on evolution in technology in mobile communicationAnkit Kumar
This document provides a summary of the technologies used in telecommunication by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), one of the largest telecom service providers in India. It discusses the basic services provided by BSNL including local and long distance calling. It then describes the key components that enable basic telephony services, including exchanges, main distribution frames, and line connections. The document goes on to explain the different types of exchanges that have been used over time, beginning with manual exchanges, then moving to Strowger and crossbar exchanges, and modern digital exchanges.
This presentation provides an overview of advanced telecom technologies, including digital switching principles, fiber optics communication, mobile communication principles like GSM and CDMA, broadband DSL technologies, intelligent networks, ISDN, and next generation networks. It was presented by Ashish Nandan to the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at Future Institute of Engineering and Management.
Unit 1 Introduction to wireless telecommunication system and networksAshutha K
The document traces the history and evolution of wireless communication systems from early radio experiments to modern 4G networks. It discusses key milestones like the development of 1G analog cellular networks like AMPS, their transition to 2G digital standards like GSM and CDMA, the introduction of 3G technologies enabling data and multimedia, and the advanced capabilities of 4G LTE including high data rates, quality of service, and integrated services. The document is presented as part of a lecture on wireless telecommunications systems and networks.
Mobile communications have evolved through several generations from analog to digital technologies. The first generation used analog FM technology. The second generation introduced digital TDMA and CDMA which allowed new services like data. The third generation aimed to provide higher data rates and global standards, resulting in UMTS which offered rates up to 2Mbps. The emerging 4G standard is based on LTE and WiMax and promises speeds over 100Mbps to support new mobile multimedia services.
Evolution from 1G to 4G involves major technological advancements in wireless networks. 1G networks provided basic voice calling using analog signals, while 2G introduced digital networks like GSM. 2.5G added packet-switched data to GSM. 3G networks supported higher speeds up to 2Mbps for multimedia applications. 4G aims to provide ubiquitous high-speed mobile internet access at speeds over 100Mbps through integrated technologies like OFDM, MIMO, and software-defined radio.
This document provides an overview of modern wireless communication systems, beginning with an outline of 1G, 2G, 2.5G, and 3G technologies. It then discusses 2G networks in more detail, including TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD standards used in 2G as well as pros and cons. 2.5G technologies brought increased data rates to 2G networks. 3G enabled faster speeds up to 2Mbps for voice, data, and video. The document also covers wireless fundamentals, modulation techniques including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA, and the 3G W-CDMA and UMTS standards. Finally, it summarizes the GSM system architecture, including its
This document discusses the standardization of IMT-2000, which aims to develop standards for 3G mobile networks and services in the 2000s. The objectives are to provide global services, reduce the digital divide, offer flexible services on fixed and mobile networks, and improve efficiency. IMT-2000 is expected to be dominated by data services and offer high quality voice and multimedia. Key expectations are flexibility, lower costs than 2G, improved efficiency, and global roaming. The document outlines the roles of ITU and regional standards bodies in developing IMT-2000 through consensus building and evaluations.
Wireless communication for 8th sem EC VTU studentsSURESHA V
This document provides an introduction to wireless telecommunication systems and networks. It discusses the history of wireless radio technology from ancient smoke signals to modern cellular systems. The key developments include Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, Marconi's transatlantic radio transmission, the evolution of AM and FM radio, and the cellular concept of dividing cities into cells served by low-power base stations. It also describes the modern telecommunications infrastructure, including the public switched telephone network (PSTN), public data network (PDN), signaling system 7 (SS7), broadband cable systems, and the Internet.
Opportunistic use of the 2.63.5 ghz band for broadband services in the west a...ijmnct
Wireless technology is increasing rapidly, and the vision of pervasive wireless computing and
communications offers the promise of many societal and individual benefits. While consumer devices such
as cell phones, PDAs and laptops receive a lot of attention, the impact of wireless technology is much
broader, e.g., through sensor networks for safety applications and home automation, smart grid control,
medical wearable and embedded wireless devices, and entertainment systems. One of these wireless
technologies is the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) technology. The explosion
of wireless applications in some parts of the world has created an ever-increasing demand for more radio
spectrum. This is not the case in the West African Sub-Region, especially Ghana where the 2.6GHz and
3.5GHz broadband access bands offering 190MHz and 140MHz bandwidth is underutilized. In this paper,
we look at usage of deployed 4G-WiMAX network in Ghana and advocate the need for policy to promote
the usage of licensed bands opportunistically by wireless devices and/or networks for application in
security, smart grid control, e-learning, telemedicine, e-governance, home and factory automation
This document is a report submitted by Prashant Kumar Gajendra for his MCA 2nd semester seminar on cellular communication. It provides an acknowledgment thanking various sources of information and guidance. It includes an abstract describing an overview of cellular communication and GSM. It also includes various sections on the history, generations, components, and functions of cellular networks.
Mobile broadband is becoming a reality, as the Internet generation grows accustomed to having broadband access wherever they go, Out of 5.8 billion people who will have broadband by 2017. It should surprise no one that the Smartphone revolution is fueling this growth, and by 2017, half of all mobile devices in the world will be smart phones. The key to keeping users happy is network performance and good value for the money. From the looks of it, we are on track to seeing continued network performance improvements and increasingly easier access to smart phones as developing markets hop on the bandwagon.
This document discusses mobile and cellular communications. It defines a wireless system as providing communication without wires using radio waves to transmit voice, data, internet and video signals from small, portable devices. Cellular communications allow public communication services over multiple cells using frequency reuse, while mobile communications can include public emergency services over a single frequency across an entire area. The document outlines some applications of mobile communications including in vehicles, emergencies and business, and also discusses technologies involved like Wi-Fi, digital cellular networks, and mobility in devices and people.
This document provides an overview of 4G technology, including its goals of drastically increasing data transfer speeds and reducing transmission interruptions when moving between networks. It discusses technologies that fall under the 4G umbrella such as UMTS, OFDM, MIMO, and WiMAX. It also outlines some problems with 4G including potential interference with other devices and an inability to keep up with demand growth.
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
This document discusses the evolution of wireless communication systems from 1G to 4G. It provides details on each generation including the technologies used, key standards, capabilities and comparisons. 1G systems were analog and offered basic voice calls. 2G introduced digital networks and supported limited data. 2.5G enhanced 2G for higher speeds. 3G enabled multimedia and high-speed data using standards like W-CDMA, CDMA2000 and TD-SCDMA. 4G provides speeds up to 20 Mbps for improved multimedia services on mobile networks. The document also discusses short-range wireless technologies like Bluetooth and wireless LANs that operate without licensed spectrum.
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM IN INDIAN RAILWAYS, OFCformohitchauhan
An Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber used in Indian Railways
Methods of Jointing a Fiber Optic Cable
Mechanical Splicing
Fusion Splicing
Measurement And Testing Of Signals in an OFC
Indian Railway Telephone Exchange
Digital Multiplexing Hierarchies
PDH
SDH
Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5 g CellularPoornima E.G.
This document summarizes research on using millimeter wave frequencies for 5G cellular networks as a solution to address increasing bandwidth demands. It discusses how directional antennas and wider channel bandwidth at mm-wave frequencies could enable multi-gigabit mobile data speeds. The document also reviews myths around rain attenuation at mm-wave bands and shows that for small cell sizes of 200m, rain impact is minimal. It presents motivation, methodology and initial measurement results showing 28GHz and 38GHz can be used for cellular with directional antennas.
This document provides an overview of cellular technology roadmaps and standards including LTE and UMTS. It summarizes the evolution of technologies like W-CDMA, HSPA, HSPA+ and LTE over time with increasing download/upload speeds. It describes the key aspects of LTE including OFDMA, SC-FDMA, MIMO and LTE-Advanced. It also provides an overview of UMTS architecture and air interface standards like W-CDMA, HSDPA and HSUPA.
Cellular network evolved gradually .Generations of computer network like 1st generation (1g) ,second generation (2g) evolved .Then came 3g ,4g, each time with increased speed and security
Characterization of mixed crystals of sodium chlorate and sodium bromate and ...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analysis of image steganalysis techniques to defend against statistical attac...eSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes various techniques for image steganalysis to defend against statistical attacks. It discusses how statistical properties of images can be used to detect hidden messages and describes common steganography algorithms like LSB substitution and techniques for JPEG images. It also outlines approaches for statistical embedding and detection to introduce randomness and maintain statistical distributions when hiding information in digital images.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Text independent speaker recognition using combined lpc and mfc coefficientseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Revamping quality of service of video streaming over wireless laneSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
This document describes an adaptive Kalman filter implementation for video denoising. It proposes processing video frames independently in the spatial domain and then applying an adaptive temporal Kalman filter to each pixel sequence to reduce complexity. An adaptive Kalman filter is used which can adjust its parameters based on noise statistics variations and detected motions between frames. The algorithm is tested through MATLAB simulation on sample video frames, showing it produces a denoised output with reduced noise while still responding to changes in pixel values over time. The design considerations for FPGA implementation focus on using fixed-point arithmetic and shift operations instead of division to optimize for the FPGA hardware.
Implementation and analysis of power reduction in 2 to 4 decoder design using...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
New optimization scheme for cooperative spectrum sensing taking different snr...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Thermal, microstructure and dielectric behavior of la modified bismuth titana...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Fpga implementation of run length encoding with new formulated codeword gener...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Numerical analysis of influence of deep excavation on nearby existing tunneleSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Clustering of medline documents using semi supervised spectral clusteringeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Factors affecting def and asr in the concrete dam at vrané nad vltavoueSAT Publishing House
1) The document examines factors affecting delayed ettringite formation (DEF) and alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete from a dam in Vrané nad Vltavou, Czech Republic.
2) Samples were taken from 8 locations and tested for residual expansion, then analyzed using microscopy techniques. The sample with the highest residual expansion and microcracking was periodically exposed to water.
3) DEF was found to be the primary degradation mechanism. The sample most affected was located 1 meter above the water line and contained aggregates of acidic volcanic rock that are susceptible to DEF when periodically exposed to water.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
This document discusses the evolution of mobile cellular network technologies from 1G to 4G/LTE. It begins with an overview of cellular networks and their basic principles, including how cells and frequency reuse allow for increased network efficiency and capacity. It then covers the key technologies and standards for each generation of mobile networks: 1G analog cellular; 2G digital cellular including GSM; 2.5G technologies like CDMA and EDGE; 3G standards like UMTS/W-CDMA and CDMA2000 that enabled increased data rates and multimedia; and 4G LTE which provides further improved broadband capabilities and speeds. The document aims to explain these generations and the major enhancements introduced at each stage of development for mobile tele
A Review Of Development In Wireless CommunicationEmily Smith
The document discusses the evolution of wireless communication technologies from 1G to 5G. It begins with the introduction of 1G in the 1980s, which used analog cellular networks. 2G digital networks then launched in the early 1990s using GSM, allowing text messaging and multimedia services. 3G networks in the late 1990s provided increased data speeds up to 200kbps using W-CDMA. 4G technologies like WiMAX emerged in the late 2000s with further increased speeds. 5G is now emerging as the next major phase beyond 4G, aiming to support new applications through advanced features and software defined radios.
This document discusses the evolution of mobile phone technology from 0G to 3G. It begins by defining a mobile phone and describing the core functionality of 0G/1G mobile phones, which used analog signals and could only make calls. 2G introduced digital networks and SMS messaging. 2.5G networks added basic packet-switched data and higher speeds. 3G networks supported the first mobile internet and video calling, providing minimum download speeds of 0.2 Mbps. The document traces how each generation built upon the previous to add new capabilities and faster speeds.
Evolution of Wireless Communication TechnologiesAkhil Bansal
This report comprises of detailed analysis how the wireless communication developed from 1G to 4G LTE to improve data services for the end user.The future ahead i.e. 5G is also discussed.
Feel free to discuss, would be happy to help.
This document contains lecture notes on mobile communication systems. It begins with a brief history of mobile communication technology, from the first mobile phone service in 1946 to the development of 1G, 2G, and 3G cellular networks. It then discusses fundamental concepts such as cellular networks, frequency reuse, and different types of cells. The document provides an introduction to key topics but notes that the lecture series is still a work in progress.
IRJET- A Review on Mobile Computing Wireless Communication Technology using 0...IRJET Journal
This document provides a review of mobile computing and wireless communication technologies from 0G to 7G. It begins with an abstract that outlines the evolution of mobile wireless generations. The body then discusses each generation in more detail, describing the key technologies, features, and advancements of 0G, 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, 6G, and 7G. The review concludes that research is ongoing into future 6G and 7G technologies to further improve upon capabilities introduced in previous generations.
The document discusses the evolution of mobile phone systems and the development of personal communication networks (PCN) which aim to integrate wired and wireless networks. It discusses 1st, 2nd, and 3rd generation mobile phone systems. The PCN is envisioned as a system that will provide ubiquitous communication, a single universal phone number, customized services, and high-functionality handsets. The PCN aims to support existing 2nd generation services and provide new services not previously implemented by integrating existing wired and wireless networks.
Module 01 introduction to mobile computing (1)JIGNESH PATEL
This document provides an overview of mobile computing and wireless communication technologies. It discusses the evolution from 1G to 5G mobile networks, including the key technologies of each generation. It also covers fundamental wireless concepts like cellular systems, frequency reuse, and methods to increase cell capacity such as cell splitting, sectorization, and microcell zones. The document aims to introduce readers to the basics of mobile computing and wireless communication.
This document provides an overview of mobile communication systems and related topics. It includes sections on frequency bands used, mobile services, the history and evolution of mobile communication systems from 1st to 3rd generation, technologies like MMS, GPRS and Bluetooth, mobile computing applications, and the growth of mobile phone subscribers in the UK. It also briefly defines mobile communications and key aspects of cellular systems.
Design and development broadband monopole antenna for in-door applicationTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This paper describes the broadband monopole antenna refers to a signal
wideband of the frequencies, which can be divided the signal into channels of
the frequency bins. Aim this paper to design and development broadband
monopole antenna. The monopole antenna was designed by adding slot to
the radiated patch antenna with a single feed line, which reduced the size and
the design complexity. A rectangular patch antenna was presented using feed
line to decrease the ground plane with a suitable gap distance. The broadband
monopole antenna was designed with a frequency range of 800 MHz – 3 GHz,
with Bandwidth 0.66 (dB), reflection coefficients and return loss.
The frequency-dependent characteristic impedance was included. It can be
used in various broadband applications in used commercially for various
communication systems such as 4G (LTE), WiMAX and WLAN (LTE),
remote sensing, biomedical, and mobile wireless. Apart from that, this
technology is environment-friendly; an antenna which consists of reception
and transmission. The antenna is simulated by using computer simulation
(CST) software; using FR-4 substrate of 4.4 permittivity thickness 1.6 mm and
loss tangent of 0.025. The measurement result is accepted with simulation
result, proving the acceptable broadband operation for this proposed structure.
Mobile communication systems have evolved from 1G to 4G over several generations, with each generation bringing major improvements. 1G systems provided basic mobile voice calling. 2G introduced digital networks and services like texting. 3G focused on higher speed data and the beginning of mobile broadband. 4G aims to provide high-speed broadband to support a wide range of services for high mobility applications. The document provides an overview of this evolution from 1G analog networks to the emerging 4G standards.
5G has been fully commercialized, and human communication technology has once again embarked on a period of rapid development. With the development of rocket recovery, low-orbit satellites, and 6G satellite network technology, sci-fi communication methods are not far away from us.
In 2019, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology established a 6G research group to promote 6G-related work. In April of the same year, the University of Oulu hosted the world's first 6G summit. 6G is expected to achieve further technical indicators. The air interface delay is less than 0.1ms, the network depth coverage rate reaches 100%, millimeter-level sensing, and positioning, unit power consumption is greatly reduced, transmission bandwidth will reach TB level, and the density of connected hundreds of devices will reach per cubic meter.
On April 20, 2020, the China Development and Reform Commission clarified the scope of new infrastructure for the first time and included satellite Internet into the scope of communication network infrastructure. At present, many domestic enterprises have begun to actively deploy the satellite Internet industry.
(3G) Technology, one of the leading Technologies in today’s wireless technology. NTT DoCoMo of Japan on October 1, 2001 is the first one to commercially launch this service. It was first implemented on CDMA phones. Now this service is coming with GSM. Third Generation (3G) mobile devices and services will transform wireless communications into on-line, real-time connectivity. 3G wireless technology will allow an individual to have immediate access to location-specific services that offer information on demand.
A survey on multiple access technologies beyond fourth generation wireless co...ijceronline
The future of mobile wireless communication networks will include existing 3rd generation, 4th generation 5th generation,6th generation (with very high data rates Quality of Service (QoS) and service applications) and 7th generation (with space roaming). Mobile and wireless networks have made tremendous growth in the last fifteen years. The rapid improvement of the mobile generations was for the purpose of supporting as many mobile devices as possible that could benefit the users at anytime and anywhere in terms of common practical applications such as internet access, video-ondemand, video conferencing system and many more applications. This paper is focused on the specifications of future generations and latest technologies to be used in future wireless mobile communication networks like MIMO, OFDM, OFDMA, Massive MIMO, LTE, LTE-A.
This document provides an overview of 3G mobile communication networks and the evolution from 1G to 3G systems. It discusses the background and early stages of 1G analog cellular networks, the development of 2G digital cellular networks, and the standardization of 3G networks through IMT-2000. It then focuses on CDMA2000, describing it as an evolutionary step from CDMAOne that is compatible with 2G networks and approved as an IMT-2000 3G standard, with data rates up to 2Mbps. Key concepts like forward/reverse links and duplexing methods like time division and frequency division duplex are also introduced.
Lecture 2 evolution of mobile cellular Chandra Meena
This document provides an overview of mobile and ad hoc networks. It discusses the evolution of cellular networks from early radio communication systems through modern generations like 5G. Key topics covered include the fundamentals of wireless technologies, radio propagation mechanisms, characteristics of the wireless channel, and cellular network components and terminology. Generations of cellular standards are defined, including 1G analog networks like AMPS, 2G digital networks like GSM that enabled data services, and subsequent generations with improved capabilities.
1) The first generation (1G) of cellular networks launched in 1979 in Japan and provided speeds between 28-56kbps. 2G networks launched in 1991 provided text messaging, pictures, and multimedia. 3G networks launched in 2000 provided faster data transfer for mobile internet, video calls, and mobile TV. 4) 4G networks provide ultra-broadband access at speeds up to 1Gbps to support applications like mobile web, IP telephony, HD video, and more. Major providers are working to launch 4G networks in India in the coming years to support these new applications across multiple devices and platforms.
- UMTS is the successor to GSM and a 3G mobile network standard that allows transmission speeds up to 2Mbps. It addresses growing demand for mobile internet and applications.
- The document discusses the evolution of mobile communications leading to UMTS, from 1G analog networks to 2G digital GSM. It describes the UMTS network architecture including new elements like the UTRAN network and interfaces.
- UMTS incorporates enhanced GSM core networks and introduces a new radio access network (UTRAN) using W-CDMA technology. This allows operators to preserve their 2G investments while transitioning to higher speed 3G UMTS.
- UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is the 3G mobile network that succeeds 2G GSM networks. It allows for higher data transmission speeds of up to 2Mbps.
- UMTS incorporates enhanced GSM core networks and introduces a new radio access network called UTRAN. UTRAN uses W-CDMA as the new air interface standard instead of GSM's TDMA.
- The UMTS network architecture connects the UTRAN to the existing GSM core network, allowing operators to preserve their GSM investments while introducing higher speed UMTS capabilities. This enables a transition to the 3G standard defined by IMT-2000.
IJCER (www.ijceronline.com) International Journal of computational Engineeri...ijceronline
Call for paper 2012, hard copy of Certificate, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJCER, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, research and review articles, IJCER Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathematics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer review journal, indexed journal, research and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijceronline.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Computational Engineering Research, Google journals, hard copy of Certificate,
journal of engineering, online Submission
Similar to A great land mark to achieve 4 g mobile communications (20)
Hudhud cyclone caused extensive damage in Visakhapatnam, India in October 2014, especially to tree cover. This will likely impact the local environment in several ways: increased air pollution as trees absorb less; higher temperatures without tree canopy; increased erosion and landslides. It also created large amounts of waste from destroyed trees. Proper management of solid waste is needed to prevent disease spread. Suggested measures include restoring damaged plants, building fountains to reduce heat, mandating light-colored buildings, improving waste management, and educating public on health risks. Overall, changes are needed to water, land, and waste practices to rebuild the environment after the cyclone removed green cover.
Impact of flood disaster in a drought prone area – case study of alampur vill...eSAT Publishing House
1) In September-October 2009, unprecedented heavy rainfall and dam releases caused widespread flooding in Alampur village in Mahabub Nagar district, a historically drought-prone area.
2) The flood damaged or destroyed homes, buildings, infrastructure, crops, and documents. It displaced many residents and cut off the village.
3) The socioeconomic conditions and mud-based construction of homes in the village exacerbated the flood's impacts, making damage more severe and recovery more difficult.
The document summarizes the Hudhud cyclone that struck Visakhapatnam, India in October 2014. It describes the cyclone's formation, rapid intensification to winds of 175 km/h, and landfall near Visakhapatnam. The cyclone caused extensive damage estimated at over $1 billion and at least 109 deaths in India and Nepal. Infrastructure like buildings, bridges, and power lines were destroyed. Crops and fishing boats were also damaged. The document then discusses coping strategies and improvements needed to disaster management plans to better prepare for future cyclones.
Groundwater investigation using geophysical methods a case study of pydibhim...eSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes the results of a geophysical investigation using vertical electrical sounding (VES) methods at 13 locations around an industrial area in India. The VES data was interpreted to generate geo-electric sections and pseudo-sections showing subsurface resistivity variations. Three main layers were typically identified - a high resistivity topsoil, a weathered middle layer, and a basement rock. Pseudo-sections revealed relatively more weathered areas in the northwest and southwest. Resistivity sections helped identify zones of possible high groundwater potential based on low resistivity anomalies sandwiched between more resistive layers. The study concluded the electrical resistivity method was useful for understanding subsurface geology and identifying areas prospective for groundwater exploration.
Flood related disasters concerned to urban flooding in bangalore, indiaeSAT Publishing House
1. The document discusses urban flooding in Bangalore, India. It describes how factors like heavy rainfall, population growth, and improper land use have contributed to increased flooding in the city.
2. Flooding events in 2013 are analyzed in detail. A November rainfall caused runoff six times higher than the drainage capacity, inundating low-lying residential areas.
3. Impacts of urban flooding include disrupted daily life, damaged infrastructure, and decreased economic activity in affected areas. The document calls for improved flood management strategies to better mitigate urban flooding risks in Bangalore.
Enhancing post disaster recovery by optimal infrastructure capacity buildingeSAT Publishing House
This document discusses enhancing post-disaster recovery through optimal infrastructure capacity building. It presents a model to minimize the cost of meeting demand using auxiliary capacities when disaster damages infrastructure. The model uses genetic algorithms to select optimal capacity combinations. The document reviews how infrastructure provides vital services supporting recovery activities and discusses classifying infrastructure into six types. When disaster reduces infrastructure services, a gap forms between community demands and available support, hindering recovery. The proposed research aims to identify this gap and optimize capacity selection to fill it cost-effectively.
Effect of lintel and lintel band on the global performance of reinforced conc...eSAT Publishing House
This document analyzes the effect of lintels and lintel bands on the seismic performance of reinforced concrete masonry infilled frames through non-linear static pushover analysis. Four frame models are considered: a frame with a full masonry infill wall; a frame with a central opening but no lintel/band; a frame with a lintel above the opening; and a frame with a lintel band above the opening. The results show that the full infill wall model has 27% higher stiffness and 32% higher strength than the model with just an opening. Models with lintels or lintel bands have slightly higher strength and stiffness than the model with just an opening. The document concludes lintels and lintel
Wind damage to trees in the gitam university campus at visakhapatnam by cyclo...eSAT Publishing House
1) A cyclone with wind speeds of 175-200 kph caused massive damage to the green cover of Gitam University campus in Visakhapatnam, India. Thousands of trees were uprooted or damaged.
2) A study assessed different types of damage to trees from the cyclone, including defoliation, salt spray damage, damage to stems/branches, and uprooting. Certain tree species were more vulnerable than others.
3) The results of the study can help in selecting more wind-resistant tree species for future planting and reducing damage from future storms.
Wind damage to buildings, infrastrucuture and landscape elements along the be...eSAT Publishing House
1) A visual study was conducted to assess wind damage from Cyclone Hudhud along the 27km Visakha-Bheemli Beach road in Visakhapatnam, India.
2) Residential and commercial buildings suffered extensive roof damage, while glass facades on hotels and restaurants were shattered. Infrastructure like electricity poles and bus shelters were destroyed.
3) Landscape elements faced damage, including collapsed trees that damaged pavements, and debris in parks. The cyclone wiped out over half the city's green cover and caused beach erosion around protected areas.
1) The document reviews factors that influence the shear strength of reinforced concrete deep beams, including compressive strength of concrete, percentage of tension reinforcement, vertical and horizontal web reinforcement, aggregate interlock, shear span-to-depth ratio, loading distribution, side cover, and beam depth.
2) It finds that compressive strength of concrete, tension reinforcement percentage, and web reinforcement all increase shear strength, while shear strength decreases as shear span-to-depth ratio increases.
3) The distribution and amount of vertical and horizontal web reinforcement also affects shear strength, but closely spaced stirrups do not necessarily enhance capacity or performance.
Role of voluntary teams of professional engineers in dissater management – ex...eSAT Publishing House
1) A team of 17 professional engineers from various disciplines called the "Griha Seva" team volunteered after the 2001 Gujarat earthquake to provide technical assistance.
2) The team conducted site visits, assessments, testing and recommended retrofitting strategies for damaged structures in Bhuj and Ahmedabad. They were able to fully assess and retrofit 20 buildings in Ahmedabad.
3) Factors observed that exacerbated the earthquake's impacts included unplanned construction, non-engineered buildings, improper prior retrofitting, and defective materials and workmanship. The professional engineers' technical expertise was crucial for effective post-disaster management.
This document discusses risk analysis and environmental hazard management. It begins by defining risk, hazard, and toxicity. It then outlines the steps involved in hazard identification, including HAZID, HAZOP, and HAZAN. The document presents a case study of a hypothetical gas collecting station, identifying potential accidents and hazards. It discusses quantitative and qualitative approaches to risk analysis, including calculating a fire and explosion index. The document concludes by discussing hazard management strategies like preventative measures, control measures, fire protection, relief operations, and the importance of training personnel on safety.
Review study on performance of seismically tested repaired shear wallseSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes research on the performance of reinforced concrete shear walls that have been repaired after damage. It begins with an introduction to shear walls and their failure modes. The literature review then discusses the behavior of original shear walls as well as different repair techniques tested by other researchers, including conventional repair with new concrete, jacketing with steel plates or concrete, and use of fiber reinforced polymers. The document focuses on evaluating the strength retention of shear walls after being repaired with various methods.
Monitoring and assessment of air quality with reference to dust particles (pm...eSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes a study on monitoring and assessing air quality with respect to dust particles (PM10 and PM2.5) in the urban environment of Visakhapatnam, India. Sampling was conducted in residential, commercial, and industrial areas from October 2013 to August 2014. The average PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were within limits in residential areas but moderate to high in commercial and industrial areas. Exceedance factor levels indicated moderate pollution for residential areas and moderate to high pollution for commercial and industrial areas. There is a need for management measures like improved public transport and green spaces to combat particulate air pollution in the study areas.
Low cost wireless sensor networks and smartphone applications for disaster ma...eSAT Publishing House
This document describes a low-cost wireless sensor network and smartphone application system for disaster management. The system uses an Arduino-based wireless sensor network comprising nodes with various sensors to monitor the environment. The sensor data is transmitted to a central gateway and then to the cloud for analysis. A smartphone app connected to the cloud can detect disasters from the sensor data and send real-time alerts to users to help with early evacuation. The system aims to provide low-cost localized disaster detection and warnings to improve safety.
Coastal zones – seismic vulnerability an analysis from east coast of indiaeSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes an analysis of seismic vulnerability along the east coast of India. It discusses the geotectonic setting of the region as a passive continental margin and reports some moderate seismic activity from offshore in recent decades. While seismic stability cannot be assumed given events like the 2004 tsunami, no major earthquakes have been recorded along this coast historically. The document calls for further study of active faults, neotectonics, and implementation of improved seismic building codes to mitigate vulnerability.
Can fracture mechanics predict damage due disaster of structureseSAT Publishing House
This document discusses how fracture mechanics can be used to better predict damage and failure of structures. It notes that current design codes are based on small-scale laboratory tests and do not account for size effects, which can lead to more brittle failures in larger structures. The document outlines how fracture mechanics considers factors like size effect, ductility, and minimum reinforcement that influence the strength and failure behavior of structures. It provides examples of how fracture mechanics has been applied to problems like evaluating shear strength in deep beams and investigating a failure of an oil platform structure. The document argues that fracture mechanics provides a more scientific basis for structural design compared to existing empirical code provisions.
This document discusses the assessment of seismic susceptibility of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings. It begins with an introduction to earthquakes and the importance of vulnerability assessment in mitigating earthquake risks and losses. It then describes modeling the nonlinear behavior of RC building elements and performing pushover analysis to evaluate building performance. The document outlines modeling RC frames and developing moment-curvature relationships. It also summarizes the results of pushover analyses on sample 2D and 3D RC frames with and without shear walls. The conclusions emphasize that pushover analysis effectively assesses building properties but has limitations, and that capacity spectrum method provides appropriate results for evaluating building response and retrofitting impact.
A geophysical insight of earthquake occurred on 21 st may 2014 off paradip, b...eSAT Publishing House
1) A 6.0 magnitude earthquake occurred off the coast of Paradip, Odisha in the Bay of Bengal on May 21, 2014 at a depth of around 40 km.
2) Analysis of magnetic and bathymetric data from the area revealed the presence of major lineaments in NW-SE and NE-SW directions that may be responsible for seismic activity through stress release.
3) Movements along growth faults at the margins of large Bengal channels, due to large sediment loads, could also contribute to seismic events by triggering movements along the faults.
Effect of hudhud cyclone on the development of visakhapatnam as smart and gre...eSAT Publishing House
This document discusses the effects of Cyclone Hudhud on the development of Visakhapatnam as a smart and green city through a case study and preliminary surveys. The surveys found that 31% of participants had experienced cyclones, 9% floods, and 59% landslides previously in Visakhapatnam. Awareness of disaster alarming systems increased from 14% before the 2004 tsunami to 85% during Cyclone Hudhud, while awareness of disaster management systems increased from 50% before the tsunami to 94% during Hudhud. The surveys indicate that initiatives after the tsunami improved awareness and preparedness. Developing Visakhapatnam as a smart, green city should consider governance
Discover the latest insights on Data Driven Maintenance with our comprehensive webinar presentation. Learn about traditional maintenance challenges, the right approach to utilizing data, and the benefits of adopting a Data Driven Maintenance strategy. Explore real-world examples, industry best practices, and innovative solutions like FMECA and the D3M model. This presentation, led by expert Jules Oudmans, is essential for asset owners looking to optimize their maintenance processes and leverage digital technologies for improved efficiency and performance. Download now to stay ahead in the evolving maintenance landscape.
Build the Next Generation of Apps with the Einstein 1 Platform.
Rejoignez Philippe Ozil pour une session de workshops qui vous guidera à travers les détails de la plateforme Einstein 1, l'importance des données pour la création d'applications d'intelligence artificielle et les différents outils et technologies que Salesforce propose pour vous apporter tous les bénéfices de l'IA.
Prediction of Electrical Energy Efficiency Using Information on Consumer's Ac...PriyankaKilaniya
Energy efficiency has been important since the latter part of the last century. The main object of this survey is to determine the energy efficiency knowledge among consumers. Two separate districts in Bangladesh are selected to conduct the survey on households and showrooms about the energy and seller also. The survey uses the data to find some regression equations from which it is easy to predict energy efficiency knowledge. The data is analyzed and calculated based on five important criteria. The initial target was to find some factors that help predict a person's energy efficiency knowledge. From the survey, it is found that the energy efficiency awareness among the people of our country is very low. Relationships between household energy use behaviors are estimated using a unique dataset of about 40 households and 20 showrooms in Bangladesh's Chapainawabganj and Bagerhat districts. Knowledge of energy consumption and energy efficiency technology options is found to be associated with household use of energy conservation practices. Household characteristics also influence household energy use behavior. Younger household cohorts are more likely to adopt energy-efficient technologies and energy conservation practices and place primary importance on energy saving for environmental reasons. Education also influences attitudes toward energy conservation in Bangladesh. Low-education households indicate they primarily save electricity for the environment while high-education households indicate they are motivated by environmental concerns.
Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field that refers to the skill sets needed in the contemporary, advanced automated manufacturing industry. At the intersection of mechanics, electronics, and computing, mechatronics specialists create simpler, smarter systems. Mechatronics is an essential foundation for the expected growth in automation and manufacturing.
Mechatronics deals with robotics, control systems, and electro-mechanical systems.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Software Testing + Agile Method...Prakhyath Rai
Software Testing: A Strategic Approach to Software Testing, Strategic Issues, Test Strategies for Conventional Software, Test Strategies for Object -Oriented Software, Validation Testing, System Testing, The Art of Debugging.
Agile Methodology: Before Agile – Waterfall, Agile Development.
A great land mark to achieve 4 g mobile communications
1. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 1
A GREAT LAND MARK TO ACHIEVE 4-G MOBILE
COMMUNICATIONS
Pijush Kanti Bhattacharjee1
, Sudipta Roy2
1
Department of Applied Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, Dream Institute of Technology, Kolkata-700104,
West Bengal, India
2
Department of Information Technology, School of Technology, Assam University, Silchar, Pin-788011, Assam, India
Abstract
Celluar mobile communications have brought forth a massive change in telecommunications field due to introducing digital
electronics switching and optical fibre as well as microwave and satellite links technologies throught the world. Now people have all
communcations facilities and opportunities to step in the super fast mobile communications age with very high speed data
communications facility from 2-g to 3-g and henceforth it is building the path from 3-g to 4-g mobile communications also. A great
mobile communications revolution happens throughout the world – whose direct impact is that communications in different forms like
voice, data, image, conference, multimedia etc. Are avilable for all at any time anywhere with a minimum price.
Keywords: PCS, PCN, FCC, AT&T, VLSI, ULSI, Nano Chips, IMTS, NTT, AMPS, USDC, TACS, NMTS, NAMTS, PDCS,
CT2, DECT, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, GSM, T-S, T-S-T, ISDN, VSAT, SMS, PN, ARFCN, BCCH, BCH, CCCH, DCCH,
MS, BTS, BSC, BSS, MSC, HLR, VLR, EIR, AUC, IMSI, TMSI, GMSK, LNA, LAN, WAN, GPRS, EDGE, WCDMA,
CDMA-2000, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, WLAN, WPAN, WCAN, WHAN, MANET, VANET, ITU, ETSI, PDSN, IWF, AAA, HA, FA,
RNC, UMTS.
----------------------------------------------------------------------***--------------------------------------------------------------------
1. INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS MOBILE
COMMUNICATIONS
Wireless communication is the most popular area of
communications at present. The first wireless communication
established by Guglielmo Marconi of Italy in 1897 A.D., when
contact between two ships sailing in the English Channel was
made through wireless. The development of cellular
communications [3]-[14] supports simultaneously voice
telephony with other services like transmission of video,
images, text and data etc. The two resources are very much
limited, i.e., availability of radio spectrum or bandwidth and
transmitted power of mobile handset or mobile battery power
[6]-[7]. By the invention of new processors (VLSI, ULSI, Nano
chips etc.), jelly filled battery and different multiple access
technologies (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA etc.), these two problems
are solved. There was existing various types of mobile
technologies such as Mobile Radio Systems, Satellite Mobile
Systems, Cellular Personal Communications Systems (PCSs),
Personal Communications Network (PCNs) etc. upto early
1930s was belonging to 1-G (First Generation) mobile
communications. All mobile radio systems in operation used
amplitude modulation (AM). From the late of 1930 onwards
(1936 A.D.), Frequency Modulation (FM) systems were
implemented in mobile communications. At the end of Second
World War (1946 A.D), the Mobile Telephone Systems (MTS)
were extended to commercial purpose in USA; it was
introduced in 25 cities. U.S. radio frequency regulatory body
known as Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
allocates the frequency spectrum for smooth mobile operation.
FCC grants license to the American Telephone and Telegraph
Company (AT&T) to operate mobile service in 1946 A.D. This
system used carrier bandwidth per channel of 120 KHz in half
duplex mode, a single powerful transmitter to cover a radius of
50 miles or more from the base station. In 1950 A.D, the
improved technology was enabled to make channel bandwidth
to 60 KHz. This bandwidth was depended on the Processor’s
Capacity, RF Filters, Low Noise Amplifier, front-end receiver
Amplifiers etc. By the mid of 1960 A.D. in the US, the FM
bandwidth of voice transmission was reduced to 30 KHz.
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS) has started
functioning from 1960 A.D. in the U.S, where the channels were
available in full duplex, with extra facilities available like auto
dial, auto switching, auto trunking, routing etc.
In 2-G mobile communications, the basic concept of cellular
mobile telephone is breaking a coverage zone or area into
smaller cells, generally hexagonal region, each of which reuses
portions of the spectrum to increase the same frequency
spectrum usage. If frequency channels are only reused after N
cells, we recognize the frequency reuse factor as 1/N, then N =
2. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 2
i2
+ ij + j2
, where i and j are non negative real integers. So, there
is a sufficient distance between the same frequency channels,
i.e., at least seven cell difference (for i = 1 and j = 2, N becomes
7) to prevent co-channel interference in GSM system. In 1979
A.D., the World's first cellular system is installed by the Nippon
Telephone and Telegraph Company (NTT) in Japan; it uses 600
FM duplex channels (25 KHz for each one way link) in the 800
MHz band. A full fledge commercial cellular service is
introduced in USA from 1983 A.D., called Advanced Mobile
Phone Service (AMPS). AMPS system is an analog system
having two frequency band like 825-845 MHz for reverse path
(MS to BTS) and 870-890 MHz for forward path (BTS to MS),
channel width or bandwidth per channel is 30 KHz, for 40 MHz
Spectrum where 20 MHz for each path, total number of
channels available 666. In the late 1991 A.D., the first US
Digital Cellular system (USDC) is standardized by Electronic
Industry Association as Interim Standard (IS)-54 and later IS-
136. It supports three digital channels in the same 30 KHz
bandwidth, i.e., the capacity of USDC is three times that of
AMPS.
From 1995 A.D. onwards in India, a second generation (2-G)
cellular system is started. It is Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM) [3]-[14] as an International Standard by
International Telecomm Union, and Code division multiple
access (CDMA) system [3]-[14] based on Walsh coding CDMA
technique is developed by Qualcomm. Inc and is standardized
by the Telecomm Industry Association (TIA) as IS-95. In
second generation (2-G) cellular system, the channel capacity is
increased by using different multiplexing techniques like
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA), Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) etc. The forward channel (BTS to MS) and the reverse
channel (MS to BTS) are having different frequencies to prevent
any interference by Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
method for simultaneous transmitting and receiving signals.
Generally the reverse channel frequency is exactly 45 MHz
lower than that of the forward channel to safeguard the
communication from interference, noise etc. 2.5-G mobile
network is developed under General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
etc. [7]-[8]; Then 3-G mobile communications are started with
Wi-Fi for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) and Wide
Area Network (WAN) [7]-[10], CDMA-2000 for CDMA and
WCDMA for GSM technology [7]-[10] ,i.e., 3-G mobile
network are yet to be starting function in full order in the field
of mobile communications in India. Now Bluetooth technology
(with modem) operating in the 2.4 GHz Industrial Scientific and
Medical (ISM) radio Band, i.e., 2400 MHz to 2483.5 MHz is
adopted for limited area (say 100~200 meter) wireless network
like WLAN or Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) [6]-
[14].
Modern digital switches [1]-[2], [6] like T-S (Time-Space), T-S-
T, T-S-S-T etc. provide huge number of connections from one
telephone switching system (exchange) and transmission
networks like optical fiber [2], microwave, satellite, co-axial
cable network etc. integrate large number of channels through
one media with very high speed communication links. Very
small aperture terminal (VSAT) using satellite channels are
ensuring fast communication to remote places.
2. EXISTING MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEMS
USING GSM AND CDMA TECHNOLOGY
At the end of 20th
Century, Licenses for cellular or mobile
telephone business [3]-[14] for public use are issued to different
private companies in India. In the first phase, the equipment of
cellular telephone exchanges and handsets are not reliable.
These instruments have various shortcomings, but in no time all
type of problems are eliminated with the advancement of
technology and research output. The mobile private service is
started from 1995 A.D. and from 2000 A.D. BSNL has joined in
the mobile scenario of India. Day to day mobile phone is going
to be slim miniature size, very light weight, battery long lasting
with huge number of facilities and in build memory with
camera. At present the mobile telephone is offering multimedia
services like simultaneously voice, image, written message,
SMS, e-mail, high speed internet, remote control, GPRS, tele-
business etc. Present mobile service is continuing in India of
Second Generation (2-G). In Europe, America, Japan and
advanced countries, Third generation (3-G) mobile service is
running. In 3-G mobile communications, the voice and the data
links are quite fast with huge bit rate, e.g., upto 2 Mbps. Thus,
the mobile phone (MS) acts as a mini laptop by implementing
advance generation mobile communications [6].
Presently we have two types of mobile telephone system in
India. First one is GSM or Global System for Mobile
Communication [3]-[7], second one CDMA or Code Division
Multiple Access system [3]-[8]. Each sector of a hexagonal cell
or a BTS [3]-[7] is identified by a unique PN (Pseudo Noise)
number or code in CDMA or Absolute Radio Frequency
Channel Numbers (ARFCN) broadcasted by Broadcast Control
Channel (BCCH) in GSM which indicates the frequency band
using, cell, sector and network identity and this PN or ARFCN
is transmitted by BTS under regular intervals (say 26.67 msec).
Both GSM and CDMA systems have some merits as well as
demerits. By an intricate comparison it can not be assured which
one is better than the other. In GSM technology at the
transmitter, voice and data (Analog signals digitized to 64 Kbps
by PCM) is down sampled by voice coder (Vocoder) at the rate
of 13 Kbps, multiplexed by Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA) method by RF carriers and then the FDMA
signals are further multiplexed by Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA) technique [4]-[7] into 8 time slots (TS) per
carrier, finally transmitted by Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
(GMSK) modulation technique. At the receiver, reverse process
take place for recovering the basic signals. Two types of GSM
logic channels are available, called Traffic channels (TCHs) and
Control channels (CCHs). Traffic channels carry digitally
encoded speech or data with identical functions and formats on
3. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 3
both forward and reverse path. Control channels carry signaling,
synchronization etc. between BTS and MS in both links. There
are six different types of TCHs and large number of CCHs. Full
rate Speech Channel (TCH/FS) carries user speech digitized at
the rate of 13 Kbps, with coding and error correction bits
(control bits) added is increased to 22.8 Kbps. Three main
control channels are available like Broadcast Channel (BCH)
carry identity (ARFCN), Common Control Channel (CCCH),
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH).
CDMA system architecture follows the same pattern like that of
GSM, but interfaces and protocols are different from GSM
system. In CDMA technique at the transmitter, the basic signals,
i.e., voice and data (64 Kbps by PCM) are down sampled at the
rate of 8.5 Kbps or 13 Kbps by Vocoder, multiplexed by FDMA
technique with the carrier frequency (FA), then the each
multiplexed carrier signal (FA) is further modulated by CDMA
Walsh coding in different number of codes (e.g. 64 codes, each
having 64 bits length and these codes are orthogonal to each
other) adjoining with PN code according to the capacity of
exchange and other parameters like error checking, encrypting,
control bits etc. At the CDMA receiver, the basic signals are
reconstructed by reverse and demodulation process with Low
Noise Amplifier (LNA) and Filters, which curtail all sorts of
noises and make good for distortion of the original signal. For
centralized control in a mobile network, all MSCs are connected
to a central MSC like mainframe or super computer called NOC
(Network Operating Center) which keeps all information,
databases of the network. Hence NOC controls the total network
from a particular place, where it is situated. Five important
technical parameters [3]-[14] at any place such as Transmitted
Signal Power Level (Tx), Received Signal Power Level (Rx),
Signal to Noise Ratio (Ec/I0 in CDMA, C/I in GSM), Frame
Error Rate (FER), Received Signal Quality (Rx Qual in GSM)
determine the quality of signal or speech transmitting or
receiving by the MS (Mobile Subscriber or Station) and the BTS
at that place. By this coverage of signals from a BTS or a cell
are determined, so that good quality of speech or data is
provided throughout the region and no blind zone, i.e., low
quality received signal exists. The standard Rx (Receive Power)
level should be higher than -95 dBm and FER should not be
more than 2% for stable reliable communication. These
parameters decide a cell or a BTS area and a call hand over or
hand off situation with the other cell or the other sector. The
packet switched can be enhanced in different speeds in 2-G and
3-G mobile communications such as 38.4 kbps, 76.8 kbps, 153.6
kbps etc.
2-G mobile communications is upgraded to 2.5-G stage by
deploying either General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) or
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) technology.
GPRS is originally standardized by European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). EDGE is
standardized by 3rd
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in
2003 A.D. Data rates safely used in 2.5-G mobile
communications is from 400 Kilo bits per sec (Kbps) to 1 Mega
bits per sec (Mbps).
3. COMPARISON BETWEEN GSM & CDMA
3.1 GSM-900 Frequency Band System
890 – 915 MHz for uplink or reverse link from MS to BTS
935 – 960 MHz for downlink or forward link from BTS to MS
Bandwidth = (915-890) MHz = 25 MHz.
R.F. carrier channel spacing, i.e., Frequency difference between
two adjacent channels = 200 KHz.
Total number of R.F. carrier by FDMA = 124 (100 KHz guard
band is given in two sides, i.e., at starting and ending of a
frame)
Number of Time Slots (TS) by TDMA in One R.F carrier, i.e.,
Voice channel per carrier = 8
Total number of Time Slots (TS) = 124 X 8 = 992
[If one BTS has 12 R.F. carrier frequency in a cell, i.e. it
contains = 12 X 8 = 96 TS].
BTS Power transmitting = Max 40 Watt.
MS Power transmitting = 200 mWatt to 2 W.
3.2 GSM-1800 Frequency Band System
1710 – 1785 MHz for uplink or reverse link from MS to BTS
1805 – 1880 MHz for downlink or forward link from BTS to
MS
Here the number of channels is increased by taking wide
spectrum, i.e., Bandwidth 75 MHz, and applying with FDMA
and TDMA multiplexing techniques. International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) recommended this spectrum
for GSM-1800 MHz band, but the transmitter and the receiver
instrument become costly and interferences are more due to
adopting high frequency signals.
3.3 GSM and CDMA System Architecture
GSM and CDMA system architecture block diagram is
described in Fig. 1. GSM system consists of following
components:
MS - Mobile Station or Mobile Telephone for transmitting and
receiving signals.
MS to BTS path - Reverse or Up link,
BTS to MS path - Forward or Down link.
BTS – Base Transceiver Station serves mobile connection to
one or more cells and sectors in the cellular network, contains
TRXs, i.e., transceivers or radio units.
BSS – Base Station Sub System consists of BSCs & BTSs.
BSC – Base Switching Center controls one or more BTSs and
perform inter BTS and intra BTS switching and handovers.
4. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 4
MSC – Mobile Switching Center or Main Switching Center
which is a basic digital electronics exchange, e.g., 5ESS, i.e., 5th
version of Electronics Switching System. It controls all the
functions of a Mobile Network.
HLR – Home Location Register occupies identities of mobile
subscriber as IMSI [International Mobile Subscriber’s Identity],
service parameters, location information etc.
Fig 1 GSM and CDMA System Architecture
VLR – Visitor Location Register contains permanent and
temporary (roaming) mobile subscriber’s identity as TMSI,
ISDN directory number, routing etc.
EIR – Equipment Identity Register contains identity of mobile
equipment called IMEI [International Mobile Equipment
Identity]. It may be valid, suspect or prohibited.
AUC – Authentication Center contains authentication data
called Ki for encrypting user speech and data security purpose.
OMC – Operation and Maintenance Center is centralized
maintenance to operate, administer and monitor the functions of
MSCs, BSSs etc. One OMC may control number of MSCs and
BSSs. OMC is having a mainframe computer.
Billing Center – It provides all sorts of charging or commercial
information. One billing center can handle the calls from several
MSCs.
Service Center – It assures special services like SMS, e-mail etc.
Interfaces – Um (Air interface- 22.8 Kbps), Abis (16 Kbps), A (64
Kbps), B, C, D, E, F, G, H, X.25, FTAM, V.24.
Presently CDMA system has gain more popularity over the
GSM System due to some sorts of advantage and usability
obtained from CDMA system. Moreover number of channels in
a cell or a sector in the CDMA system is more from a BTS due
to same frequency reusing possible in the adjacent cell or sector,
which offers more connections to the subscribers encouraging
the service provider’s point of view.
3.4. CDMA Frequency Band System
824 – 844 MHz for uplink or reverse link from MS to BTS
869 – 889 MHz for downlink or forward link from BTS to MS
R.F. carrier channel spacing = 1.25 MHz,
Total available Bandwidth = 20 MHz.
Total number of carriers (FAs) = 16
Voice channel per carrier (CDMA) = 35~40 traffic channels
It uses 64 number of Walsh orthogonal codes, each code having
64 bits length. Walsh orthogonal code means that if EXOR
functions are taken between two adjacent orthogonal codes,
output of the EXOR function will be zero.
Total number of CDMA Channels = 40 X 16 = 640
BTS Power transmitting = Max 20 Watt.
MS Power transmitting = Max 200 mWatt.
CDMA system has large capacity comparing to other techniques
like GSM. It requires less power using spread spectrum
technique [3]-[7], [12]-[14]. Spread spectrum technique is
adopted by multiplying Walsh code with Pseudorandom Noise
(PN) Code, since one carrier channel is having large bandwidth
1.25 Mz. There are two types of PN codes, One is long PN code
5. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 5
having 242
combinations (4400 billion) using 42 bits length,
unique PN long code is given to each MS for identifying IMSI,
ESN etc., repeated every 41 days and the other is PN short code
which uses 215
combinations (32768) using 15 bits length.
Unique PN short code is assured to each BTS for identifying
cell or sector number, network parameters etc., repeated every
26.67 msec. The BTS antenna of CDMA requires to transmit
maximum 20 Watt power where as GSM antenna transmits
maximum 40 Watt power and the mobile handset of CDMA
transmits maximum 200 mWatt whereas the same of GSM
transmits maximum 2 Watt.
4. ARCHITECTURE OF 3-G MOBILE SYSTEM
Architecture of a 3rd
Generation wireless network CDMA-2000
or WCDMA is described below in Fig. 2. This 3-G network
[8]-[10] can provide circuit switched voice service, circuit
switched data service like 2-G (CDMA One or GSM) in
addition to this packet switched data and multimedia service. In
2000 A.D., Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA)
publishes Interim Standard (IS)-856 network. It is known
CDMA 2000 1X EV-DO (Evolution Data Optimized). CDMA-
2000 1X is having chip rate 1.2288 Mcps, While WCDMA chip
rate is 3.84 Mcps, but CDMA-2000 3X chip rate is 3.6864
Mcps.
In data network, MS is called Access Terminal (AT) where data
or messages in written form is originated or terminated, where
as BTS with BSC are called Access Network (AN) which
handles data and further transports to PDSN (Packet Data
Serving Node) through Interim Standard-2001 (IS-2001)
network specified by ITU. Thus AN acts as an interface
between AT and PDSN. AT and AN are connected by IS-856
network.
For increasing data rate in 2-G, the first step begins with
deploying GPRS or the Public Switched Data Network (PSDN)
for enabling packet data services in GSM and CDMA-One
networks. The Voice-over-IP (VoIP) gateway function could be
provided as an extended feature to the circuit gateway or the
PDSN for 3-G mobile communications. The VoIP gateway will
hold the vocoding algorithms converting between a voice call
encapsulated in an air interface frame and an IP end point that
may be an IP-enabled phone, IP based PBX or PC etc. [7]-[14].
The circuit switched voice and data services are arranged in
same pattern as CDMA-One (2-G) by MS, BTS, BSC, MSC,
HLR, VLR, AUC and IWF. An Inter-Working Function (IWF)
is configured for converting a signal into a form compatible
with a destination network receiving the data. While IWF
enables circuit switched data service and BSC carries out
mobility management, i.e., controlling hand over or hand off.
Additional networks are provided in 3-G for providing packet
switched data service usually higher speed than that of circuit
switched data service in 2-G.
This packet switched data network [8]-[10] is consisting of two
parts.
(1) Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN): The PDSN is the
element that provides packet switched data service, like MSC
for circuit switching. It is an internet protocol (IP) router that
switches user data traffic to a public data network, i.e., the
internet. It deals with packet switched traffic (generally data)
between the MS, i.e., the user and packet switched network
namely Internet or Intranet etc.
(2) Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA): The
AAA is a server that provides three main functions like
authentication, authorization and accounting services for the
packet data traffic connected with PDSN. It ultimately ensures
packet data network connectivity services to the mobile users.
Authentication requires the user to provide an account number
and password, i.e., exchange of logical keys or certificates
between the client and the server. If this authentication is
correct, the MS is permitted for packet data service by
Authorization. Last but not the least, function of AAA is
accounting. It collects information on its usage of packet data
service for billing or tariff calculation.
The CDMA-2000 network is supporting simple IP and mobile
IP functions.
(i) Simple IP: An MS residing in home PDSN is given an IP
address M and the server on the internet has an IP address S.
Using these two addresses, IP packets containing data or
information are exchanged between the MS and different
servers in the same PDSN. A PDSN is consisting of several
servers for routing packets in different directions. These servers
are identified by the assigned address.
(ii) Mobile IP: Two additional network elements are provided
for supporting Mobile IP.
(a) Home Agent (HA): This is a router together with the foreign
agent (FA). This router resides on the MS home IP network. It
serves as a point for communications with the mobile network.
(b) Foreign Agent (FA): This is another router residing in other
PDSN. When MS travels a foreign IP network, the FA in the
foreign network receives packet forwarded from the HA and
delivers them to the MS. Thus it functions as the mobile node’s
point of attachment when it travels to the foreign network, i.e.,
the network other than its home network.
Thus mobile IP uses a tunneling protocol to allow messages
from the PDSN to be directed to the mobile node’s IP address.
This is accomplished by way of routing messages to the foreign
node for delivery via tunneling the original IP address inside a
packet destined for the temporary IP address assigned to the
mobile node by the foreign node. This method allows for
seamless communications between the mobile node and
applications residing on the PDSN, always-on connectivity for
mobile data applications and wireless computing. There are
three modes of operation for WCDMA or CDMA-2000
Direct sequence (DS) WCDMA in UMTS for
frequency Division Duplex (FDD).
W-CDMA Time Division Duplex (TDD).
6. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 6
CDMA 2000 Multicarrier FDD.
Fig. 2 A typical 3-G wireless network architecture with high speed data network
5. ARCHITECTURE OF 4-G MOBILE SYSTEM
4-G mobile communications [11]-[12] are under experimental
stage and it is not yet totally developed. We have designed the
architecture of a fourth generation (4-G) wireless network as
shown in Fig. 3. This 4-G network can provide circuit switched
voice service, circuit switched data service like 2-G (CDMA-
One or GSM), 3-G (WCDMA, CDMA-2000, UMTS), in
addition to this packet switched data and multimedia service at a
very high data rate [6]-[14]. Data rate dimensioning targets for
4-G is 50 to 500 bit/s/Hz/Km2
, whereas in 3-G it is around 10
bit/s/Hz/Km2
using High Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA) technology. Now we mention some abbreviations and
briefly describe them that are used in 4-G mobile
communications technology.
RNC – Radio Network Controller in Universal Mobile
Telecommunication Service (UMTS) in 3-G, 4-G, like BSC in
GSM or CDMA in 2-G and 3-G.
Access controller provides connection to user’s network with
server or switch.
Service adaptation or gateway – It extends connection to other
world wide network or Internet.
PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network, i.e., land or wire
line telephone network.
ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network
PDN – Public Data Network
Server – AAA server, or PDSN server, or any other server for
high speed data communications, in general, but in special
conditions it can also provide voice communications.
Switch – It is used to give circuit connectivity like circuit or
packet or both switching system for voice and data
communications.
Workstation – It is used for connecting data network or any
other network consisting of computers (PCs, Laptop, etc.),
mobile phones, etc.
7. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 7
Fig 3 Wireless network architecture for fourth generation (4-G) mobile communications
In 4-G mobile communications, additional network is provided
that Access Controller or Gateway for the network is connected
from the switch or server in between the switch or server to
user’s equipment or Internet or other networks. In essence, 4-G
aims to transfer communications architectures from traditional
vertical stovepipe to horizontal integrated systems [11]-[14].
Personal Networks like Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN),
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN), Wireless Corporate
Area Network (WCAN), Wireless Home Area Network
(WHAN), Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), Mobile Ad
Hoc Network (MANET), Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET)
etc. are a dynamic network building on the above mentioned
wireless networking technologies, which facilitate personalized
communications with numerous number of subscribers
anywhere at any time.
WiMAX provides speed of communications through wireless
upto 40 Mbps and it can be extended upto 1 Gbps, in a radius of
50 Km area. Thus all the subscriber’s networks are connected to
a 4-G mobile system, since the personal networks can be
expanded or shrunken depending on the availability of users,
their demands and environment. A WPAN is a network of
devices that consist of a mobile phone, a personal digital or data
assistant (PDA), a notebook PC, a digital camera, etc. The
WPAN expansion can physically be made via interconnecting
structures, e.g., GSM and CDMA 2-G, 2.5-G General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM
Evolution (EDGE), 3-G mobile communications (WCDMA,
CDMA-2000, UMTS, etc.) and the Internet, to remote networks
such as home area networks, corporate area networks or
vehicular area networks, etc. in 4-G mobile communications.
6. CONCLUSIONS
From first generation (1-G) to fourth generation (4-G) mobile
communications development is completely described in this
paper in a new measure. It has been observed that the wireless
communications are employed packet switching technology in
3-G and 4-G in full order with utilizing Internet Protocol (IP)
network, i.e., IPv4 or IPv6 network; as a result high speed
secured data as well as voice transmission-reception is possible
throughout the world and universe. Although 4-G mobile
communications is under experimental stage at present and it is
not yet marketed, but the proposed design of 4-G mobile
communications are made such that it can provide very fast
multimedia communications in ubiquitous access.
8. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Special Issue: 02 | Dec-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 8
REFERENCES
[1]. J. Dunlop and D. G. Smith, Telecommunication
Engineering, Chapman & Hall Publishers, 3rd
Ed, 1994.
[2]. J. M. Senior, Optical Fiber Communications- Principles
and Practice, Prentice Hall Publisher, 2nd
Ed, 1992.
[3]. A. J. Viterbi, CDMA Principles of Spread Spectrum
Communication, Addison-Wiseley Publishers, 1995.
[4]. I. Koutsopoulos, L. Tassiulas, “The impact of space division
multiplexing on resource allocation: a unified treatment of
TDMA, OFDMA and CDMA”, IEEE Transaction on
Communication, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 260-269, 2008.
[5]. M. Rahnema, “Overview of the GSM System and Protocol
Architecture”, IEEE Transaction on Communications, pp. 92-
100, April 1993.
[6]. P. K. Bhattacharjee, “A New Era in Mobile
Communications- GSM and CDMA”, National Conference on
Wireless and Optical Communications (WOC-07) at Punjab
Engg College (D.U), pp 118 - 126, Dec 2007.
[7]. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communication: Principles and
Practice, Prentice Hall Pub Ltd, 2nd
Ed, 2006.
[8]. Xiaodong Wang and H. Vincent Poor, Wireless
Communication Systems, Pearson Education Pvt Ltd, New
Delhi, First Indian Rept, 2004.
[9]. C. Koner, P. K. Bhattacharjee, C. T. Bhunia, U Maulik, “A
Novel Approach for Authentication Technique in Mobile
Communications”, International Journal of Computer Theory
and Engineering, Singapore, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 225-229, 2009.
[10]. William C. Y. Lee, Wireless and Cellular
Communications, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill Publishers 2008.
[11]. M. L. Roberts, M. A. Temple, R. F. Mills, and R. A.
Raines “Evolution of the Air Interface of Cellular
Communications Systems toward 4G Realization”, IEEE
Communications Surveys and Tutorials, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 2-23,
Mar 2006.
[12]. P. K. Bhattacharjee, “Artificial Intelligence Based Mutual
Authentication Technique With Four Entities In 4-G Mobile
Communications”, International Journal Recent Trends in
Engineering, Academy Publishers, Finland, vol. 3, no. 2, pp 29-
31, May 2010.
[13]. P. Ramjee, O. Tero, “An Overview of CDMA Evolution
towards Wideband CDMA”, IEEE Communications Survey,
1998.
[14]. F. Adachi, M. Sawahashi, H. Suda, “Wideband DS-
CDMA for Next Generation Mobile Communications System”,
IEEE Communication Magazine, pp. 56-69, Sep. 1998.