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The document summarizes the structure and function of the nervous system in vertebrates and humans. It describes the evolution of nervous systems from simple nerve nets in invertebrates to centralized nervous systems in vertebrates. Key points include: - The human central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which receive sensory input and initiate motor responses. - Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals. They communicate at synapses using neurotransmitters. - The peripheral nervous system connects to and works with the central nervous system to receive sensory information and generate motor outputs.
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Neurons transmit electrical signals along their axons through the propagation of action potentials. An action potential is triggered when the membrane potential of the neuron reaches its threshold. This causes voltage-gated sodium channels to open, allowing sodium ions to rush into the neuron and depolarize the membrane. The membrane then repolarizes as voltage-gated potassium channels open and sodium channels close, restoring the ion gradients. This process repeats as the action potential travels down the axon. Some axons are wrapped in myelin sheaths which allow saltatory conduction, speeding up signal propagation.
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The document summarizes key aspects of the special senses including smell, taste, vision, hearing, and balance. It describes:
- The receptors for special senses are located in specific areas of the head and are anatomically distinct from general sensory receptors.
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- Smell and taste involve the detection of chemicals by olfactory and
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Features of PCTPCT have high capacity of active & passive re-absorption.
This is due to special cellular features of epithelial cells.
They have increased no. of mitochondria due to high metabolic activity.
brush border on luminal (apical) side.
Brush border contains protein carrier molecules to transport Na+ by co-transport mechanism with other substances (a.acids, glucose etc).
Additional sodium is transported by COUNTER-TRANSPORT that reabsorb sodium while secreting hydrogen.
About 65 % of filtered load of Na+ & water is reabsorbed in PCT.
A lower % age of Cl- is also absorbed.
In 1st half of PC tubules, Na+ is re-absorbed by co-transport along with glucose, a.acids and other solutes.
In 2nd half of PC tubules, mainly Na+ is reabsorbed with Cl- and some of glucose + a.acids remain un-absorbed.
2nd half of PCT has high conc of Cl- (140 mEq/L) as compared to 1st half (105 mEq/L).
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The chapter discusses the structure and function of the brain and cranial nerves. It describes how the brain is protected by cranial bones, meninges and cerebrospinal fluid, and receives blood flow through arteries and veins. The brain is organized into sections including the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The brain stem contains the medulla, pons, and midbrain. The chapter also outlines the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their functions.
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Fertilization is a complex chain of events that must occur successfully for conception. It begins with changes to the sperm to prepare for fusion with an egg. A single sperm must fuse with the egg to prevent polyspermy, which leads to embryonic death. Following fusion, the genetic material from the sperm and egg combine and the zygote undergoes rapid cell division through cleavage to form a blastula or blastocyst. This initiates differentiation of cells and early embryonic development.
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The document summarizes the history and development of cell theory. It discusses key scientists from the 1600s-1800s like Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann and their discoveries using early microscopes. Their findings established that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and cells come from pre-existing cells, which became known as the Cell Theory.
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The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its organization, components, and functions. It discusses the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system contains the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body using nerves. It also describes neurons, how they transmit signals, and neurotransmitters. Key topics covered include the resting potential of neurons, action potentials, and synaptic transmission.
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The nervous system has three main functions: sensory, integration, and motor. It is divided into the central nervous system (CNS; brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains neurons and neuroglia. Neuroglia provide support and protection for neurons. There are two types of neurons - sensory neurons transmit sensory information to the CNS, and motor neurons transmit signals from the CNS to effectors like muscles. Neurons communicate via electrical or chemical synapses using neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, and catecholamines.
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26 Lecture Ppt
- 1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chapter 26 Coordination by Neural Signaling
- 2. Most Animals Have a Nervous System That Allows Responses to Stimuli
- 4. Figure 26.1A Evolution of the nervous system
- 7. Figure 26.1B Organization of the vertebrate brain
- 9. Figure 26.2 Organization of the nervous system in humans
- 10. Neurons Process and Transmit Information
- 13. Figure 26.3A Motor neuron
- 14. Figure 26.3B Sensory neuron
- 17. Figure 26.4 Resting potential: More Na + outside the axon and more K + inside the axon. Inside is −65 mV, relative to the outside
- 19. Figure 26.5A An action potential can be visualized as voltage changes over time
- 21. Figure 26.5B Action potential begins: Depolarization to +40 mV as Na + gates open and Na + moves to inside the axon
- 22. Figure 26.5C Action potential ends: Repolarization to −65 mV as K + gates open and K + moves to outside the axon
- 24. Figure 26.6 Saltatory conduction
- 26. Figure 26.7 Synapse structure and function
- 29. Figure 26.9 Synaptic integration
- 32. Figure 26.10 Drug use
- 33. The Vertebrate Central Nervous System (CNS) Consists of the Spinal Cord and Brain
- 35. Figure 26.11 The human brain
- 37. Figure 26.12 The lobes of a cerebral hemisphere
- 39. Figure 26.13 The reticular activating system
- 41. Figure 26.14 The limbic system (in purple)
- 42. The Vertebrate Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Consists of Nerves
- 44. Figure 26.15A Anatomy of a nerve
- 45. Figure 26.15B Ventral surface of brain showing the attachment of the cranial nerves (yellow)
- 47. Figure 26.16 A reflex arc showing the path of a spinal reflex
- 49. Figure 26.17 Autonomic system