1.The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers.The model partitions a
communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven
layers.OSI means Open Systems Interconnectionis reference model for how applications can
communicate over a network This article describes and explains them, beginning with the lowest
in the hierarchy the physical and proceeding to the highest the application. The layers are stay in
this way:
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
features osi model:
If network communications need to happen with out any trouble, many problems must be
solved. Coordinating all these problems are so complex and not easy to manage.
Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
Troubleshooting is easier by separate network.
2.
the Data process that takes placethe message from one host to another cab be done as such:
The data to be passed from one host to another can be composed at the first top layer of the
passing device layer N into a protocol data unit.
The protocal data unit is passed to next layer, where it is known as the service data unit.
At next layer let us consider that layer be N-1 the service data unit is observed the with a
header,a footer,some times both,producing a layer next protocal data unit. It is then passed to
layer next layer N-2.
The process repeated until reaching the lower level,from which the data is transmitted to the
receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of
SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer\'s header and/or footer, until reaching
the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
3.
ISO
1.OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as a communication gateway between
the network and end user.
2.OSI is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of
a computing or telecommunication system irrespective of their underlying structure and
technology being used.
3.OSI is a reference model.
4.The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers
TCp/IP
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which the Internet has developed. It is a
communication protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a network.
2.TCP/IP is a core protocol of the Internet Protocol Suite (IPS). It is the basic communication
language or protocol of the internet. It can be used as a communications protocol in a private
network either an intranet or an extranet
3.TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model.
4.The tcp/ip can contains only 4 laters
4.1.network inerface layer:The most widely-known Application layer protocols are those used
for the exchange of user information.
2.internet layer:The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The core protocols of the Internet layer are I.
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology.
Power point presentation on osi model.
A good presentation cover all topics.
For any other type of ppt's or pdf's to be created on demand contact -dhawalm8@gmail.com
mob. no-7023419969
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology.
Power point presentation on osi model.
A good presentation cover all topics.
For any other type of ppt's or pdf's to be created on demand contact -dhawalm8@gmail.com
mob. no-7023419969
h!
This an assignment about
Data_Communications_and_networking
OS I model
university of Sri Jayawardenepura (Dept.of.IT)
2nd year 2nd semester
Thank you,
Difference between OSI Layer & TCP/IP LayerNetwax Lab
Difference between OSI Layer & TCP/IP Layer
TCP/IP OSI
It has 4 layers. It has 7 layers.
TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards
around which the internet has developed.
OSI Model however is a "generic, protocolindependent standard."
Follows Vertical Approach Follows Horizontal Approach
In TCP/IP Model, Transport Layer does not
Guarantees delivery of packets.
In OSI Model, Transport Layer Guarantees
delivery of packets.
Points Covered
UNIT 1:
1. The Internet Architecture
2. Networking Devices
3. OSI Model
4. TCP/IP Model
5. Topologies
6. Types of Networks with diagrams.
7.
UNIT 2:
1. X.25
2. Frame Relay
3. FDDI
4. Token Ring
5. Bluetooth
6. RFID
7. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
UNIT 3:
1. Data Link Layer
2. Error Control
3. Flow Control
4. Types of services provided to the network layer
UNIT 4:
1. Classful IP Addressing
2. Difference between IPV4 and IPV6
3. Piggybacking
4. Methods to improve QoS
5. Subnet, subnet mask, Private IP, Public IP and NAT
6. Congestion Control and how it works in TCP
7. TCP and UDP
8. Explain TCP with its header format
9. Socket
UNIT 5:
1. Application Layer
2. DNS
3. SMTP
4. POP3
5. HTTP
6. URL
7. FTP
8. Basic functions of e-mail system
9. HTTP,FTP Difference
UNIT 6:
1. Network Security Goals
2. Public key Encryption/Decryption
3. Public and Private key Encryption
4. What is a firewall? Mention the types of firewalls
5. Steps followed in creating digital signature
6. Differentiate between digital signature and digital certificate
NaCl it has two atoms in a molecule for 1 mole of.pdfanandatalapatra
NaCl it has two atoms in a molecule for 1 mole of NaCl it have 2*1=2moles atoms
1mole Na+ 1mole of Cl-
Solution
NaCl it has two atoms in a molecule for 1 mole of NaCl it have 2*1=2moles atoms
1mole Na+ 1mole of Cl-.
More Related Content
Similar to 1.The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers.The mod.pdf
h!
This an assignment about
Data_Communications_and_networking
OS I model
university of Sri Jayawardenepura (Dept.of.IT)
2nd year 2nd semester
Thank you,
Difference between OSI Layer & TCP/IP LayerNetwax Lab
Difference between OSI Layer & TCP/IP Layer
TCP/IP OSI
It has 4 layers. It has 7 layers.
TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards
around which the internet has developed.
OSI Model however is a "generic, protocolindependent standard."
Follows Vertical Approach Follows Horizontal Approach
In TCP/IP Model, Transport Layer does not
Guarantees delivery of packets.
In OSI Model, Transport Layer Guarantees
delivery of packets.
Points Covered
UNIT 1:
1. The Internet Architecture
2. Networking Devices
3. OSI Model
4. TCP/IP Model
5. Topologies
6. Types of Networks with diagrams.
7.
UNIT 2:
1. X.25
2. Frame Relay
3. FDDI
4. Token Ring
5. Bluetooth
6. RFID
7. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
UNIT 3:
1. Data Link Layer
2. Error Control
3. Flow Control
4. Types of services provided to the network layer
UNIT 4:
1. Classful IP Addressing
2. Difference between IPV4 and IPV6
3. Piggybacking
4. Methods to improve QoS
5. Subnet, subnet mask, Private IP, Public IP and NAT
6. Congestion Control and how it works in TCP
7. TCP and UDP
8. Explain TCP with its header format
9. Socket
UNIT 5:
1. Application Layer
2. DNS
3. SMTP
4. POP3
5. HTTP
6. URL
7. FTP
8. Basic functions of e-mail system
9. HTTP,FTP Difference
UNIT 6:
1. Network Security Goals
2. Public key Encryption/Decryption
3. Public and Private key Encryption
4. What is a firewall? Mention the types of firewalls
5. Steps followed in creating digital signature
6. Differentiate between digital signature and digital certificate
NaCl it has two atoms in a molecule for 1 mole of.pdfanandatalapatra
NaCl it has two atoms in a molecule for 1 mole of NaCl it have 2*1=2moles atoms
1mole Na+ 1mole of Cl-
Solution
NaCl it has two atoms in a molecule for 1 mole of NaCl it have 2*1=2moles atoms
1mole Na+ 1mole of Cl-.
Water might be the most possible item through which bacteria entered.pdfanandatalapatra
Water might be the most possible item through which bacteria entered inside the body. Name of
the bacteria is Escherichia coli which is an enteric bacteria enters into body through
contaminated food and water.
Normally MacConkey agar media is used to isolate and culture from negative enteric bacteria.
As E-coli is also an enteric bacteria this media is suitable. E.coli cause UTI related problems ,
intestinal problems.
Solution
Water might be the most possible item through which bacteria entered inside the body. Name of
the bacteria is Escherichia coli which is an enteric bacteria enters into body through
contaminated food and water.
Normally MacConkey agar media is used to isolate and culture from negative enteric bacteria.
As E-coli is also an enteric bacteria this media is suitable. E.coli cause UTI related problems ,
intestinal problems..
Total particles = 1000Number of particles entering the small apert.pdfanandatalapatra
Total particles = 1000
Number of particles entering the small aperture = (1/(1+3))*1000 = 1000/4 = 250
This is beacause the smaller aperture is three times thinner than the other .
If 350 particles are observed then the flow pattern has changed to approximately 4*350 = 1400
airborne particles per second.
Solution
Total particles = 1000
Number of particles entering the small aperture = (1/(1+3))*1000 = 1000/4 = 250
This is beacause the smaller aperture is three times thinner than the other .
If 350 particles are observed then the flow pattern has changed to approximately 4*350 = 1400
airborne particles per second..
These both are inflammatory bowel diseases characterized by chronic .pdfanandatalapatra
These both are inflammatory bowel diseases characterized by chronic inflammation of the
digestive tract.
SimilaritiesFactorulcerative colitisCrohn diseaseDistributionAffects large bowel onlyAffects
small bowel and large bowelHistologyGranulomata absent
Inflammation usually confined to mucosa
The increase in white cells tend to be polymorphsPresence of granulomas are almost diagnostic
Inflammation extends through the mucosa and
muscle of the bowel
The increase in white cells tend to be lymphocytesRadiologyStrictures and fissures are much
less common in UC
Symmetrical inflammationStrictures are common
Deep fissures and fistulae are common
Asymmetrical inflammationEndoscopy findingRectum always aff ected
Inflammation is uniform
Bowel wall is thin with loss of vascular pattern
(blood vessels not visible)Rectum frequently spared
Inflammation not continuous (presence
of skip lesions)
Bowel wall is thickened and has a ‘cobblestoned’
appearance due to deep ulcers and swelling
of the tissue
DietUnaffected by dietRemission achieved with enteral feed followed by
exclusion/ elimination dietClinical appearanceWeight loss usually related to the severity of
active disease
Bloody diarrhoea
Abdominal mass uncommonPatients often thin and may be malnourished due to
intestinal malabsorption of nutrients
Diarrhoea - only sometimes with blood
Abdominal mass commonSmokingAssociated with non-smokers
Appears to protect against diseaseStrongly associated with smoking
Predicts a worse course of disease
Increases risk of surgery & further surgery
Solution
These both are inflammatory bowel diseases characterized by chronic inflammation of the
digestive tract.
SimilaritiesFactorulcerative colitisCrohn diseaseDistributionAffects large bowel onlyAffects
small bowel and large bowelHistologyGranulomata absent
Inflammation usually confined to mucosa
The increase in white cells tend to be polymorphsPresence of granulomas are almost diagnostic
Inflammation extends through the mucosa and
muscle of the bowel
The increase in white cells tend to be lymphocytesRadiologyStrictures and fissures are much
less common in UC
Symmetrical inflammationStrictures are common
Deep fissures and fistulae are common
Asymmetrical inflammationEndoscopy findingRectum always aff ected
Inflammation is uniform
Bowel wall is thin with loss of vascular pattern
(blood vessels not visible)Rectum frequently spared
Inflammation not continuous (presence
of skip lesions)
Bowel wall is thickened and has a ‘cobblestoned’
appearance due to deep ulcers and swelling
of the tissue
DietUnaffected by dietRemission achieved with enteral feed followed by
exclusion/ elimination dietClinical appearanceWeight loss usually related to the severity of
active disease
Bloody diarrhoea
Abdominal mass uncommonPatients often thin and may be malnourished due to
intestinal malabsorption of nutrients
Diarrhoea - only sometimes with blood
Abdominal mass commonSmokingAssociated with non-smokers
Appears to protect against diseaseStrongly .
The topological structure is mainly gives the representaion of the n.pdfanandatalapatra
The topological structure is mainly gives the representaion of the network. It is called as the
heart of the topological structure. Following are the elements that are represented as the edges of
the graph.
Here the edges is drawn as a line , there are terminating on dots or small circles from which the
edges (elements ) may be present. In the virtual circuit analysis the branches are mainly called
from the edges of the graphs that is represented.
There are various topologies present they are as follows :
1. Series topology
2.Parallel topology
3. Parallel series topology
4.series parallel topology
The network topology is mainly explained in the form of the consept tree.
The connected graph of a network mainly , a connected subgraph is known as the tree. As a
result the topology that was formed is called as NETWORK TOPOLOGY.
Here the grap as well subgraph mainly has the nodes , but there will not be any loops in it.
Here the TWIGS , the branches of the tree are called as the twigs or tree branches.
The number of tree branches are mainly lesser than the nodes that is present.
Twigs = (n-1) , here \"n\" is the number of nodes of the graph.
Also, the branches of the co - tree may not be interconnected , where as the branches of a tree are
always remain connected.
Here are the properties of the Tree:
1. In a Tree, there exists one and only one path between any pair of nodes. (there cannot be
anyother path)
2. Alteast on tree will be there between every connected grwph.
3. A graph of the tree contains all the nodes.
4. The tree is mainly circuitless where there is no closed path in a tree.
5. (n-1) is called as rank of the tree.
Solution
The topological structure is mainly gives the representaion of the network. It is called as the
heart of the topological structure. Following are the elements that are represented as the edges of
the graph.
Here the edges is drawn as a line , there are terminating on dots or small circles from which the
edges (elements ) may be present. In the virtual circuit analysis the branches are mainly called
from the edges of the graphs that is represented.
There are various topologies present they are as follows :
1. Series topology
2.Parallel topology
3. Parallel series topology
4.series parallel topology
The network topology is mainly explained in the form of the consept tree.
The connected graph of a network mainly , a connected subgraph is known as the tree. As a
result the topology that was formed is called as NETWORK TOPOLOGY.
Here the grap as well subgraph mainly has the nodes , but there will not be any loops in it.
Here the TWIGS , the branches of the tree are called as the twigs or tree branches.
The number of tree branches are mainly lesser than the nodes that is present.
Twigs = (n-1) , here \"n\" is the number of nodes of the graph.
Also, the branches of the co - tree may not be interconnected , where as the branches of a tree are
always remain connected.
Here are the properties of the Tree:
1. In a Tree, there.
The main components of protein family members of RISC complex are.pdfanandatalapatra
The main components of protein family members of RISC complex are:
Highly abundant and expressive genes get more easily available for silencing process. siRNA
activities are all dependent on the expression level of the RNA strands.
Pri-Mi RNA are transported out of the nucleus by exportin protein. Dicer converts it into double
stranded micro RNA form. The micro RNA produced is complementary to the target mRNA. It
can bind with the complementary strand of target mRNA and breaks it down.
Solution
The main components of protein family members of RISC complex are:
Highly abundant and expressive genes get more easily available for silencing process. siRNA
activities are all dependent on the expression level of the RNA strands.
Pri-Mi RNA are transported out of the nucleus by exportin protein. Dicer converts it into double
stranded micro RNA form. The micro RNA produced is complementary to the target mRNA. It
can bind with the complementary strand of target mRNA and breaks it down..
Solution It is for the auditors and other people involved in the .pdfanandatalapatra
Solution
:
It is for the auditors and other people involved in the investigation to identify who is the culprit .
The company had no further additional loss , therefore I would advise Harry never to do it again
and allow the auditors to determine who is the culprit..
Ques-1 Answer C. neutrophilsReasonInnate immune system is wit.pdfanandatalapatra
Ques-1: Answer: C. neutrophils
Reason:
Innate immune system is with first line of defense first come to combat against this infection.
Neutrophiols are the host cell fist line defence factors, which act against S. aureus infection
(myriad anti -immunity factors). The main immunological inflammatory factors that were
involved in his tonsil swelling as follow. The Toll like receptors (TLRs) are signaling receptors,
and their activation leading to enhancement of the antimicrobial activity of neutrophils result in
the generation of cytokines predominantly by macrophages at the site of infection followed by
TLR s activation to present antigen to naïve T cells. This process of macropinocytosis (microbial
engulfing) occur through TLRs that induces the dendritic cells maturation finally cell migration.
Gram positive organisms live primarily on the surface of your external barriers but if they reach
systemic circulation and cause infective endocarditis (eample,Staphylococcus aureus).
Sometimes Gram- positive bacteria causes’ disease inside the body, i.e. S. aureus cause septic
arthritis inside the body. Increased risk of disease resulted if they became resistant to antibiotics
due to release of immunosppressant virulent exotoxins and endotoxins.
Solution
Ques-1: Answer: C. neutrophils
Reason:
Innate immune system is with first line of defense first come to combat against this infection.
Neutrophiols are the host cell fist line defence factors, which act against S. aureus infection
(myriad anti -immunity factors). The main immunological inflammatory factors that were
involved in his tonsil swelling as follow. The Toll like receptors (TLRs) are signaling receptors,
and their activation leading to enhancement of the antimicrobial activity of neutrophils result in
the generation of cytokines predominantly by macrophages at the site of infection followed by
TLR s activation to present antigen to naïve T cells. This process of macropinocytosis (microbial
engulfing) occur through TLRs that induces the dendritic cells maturation finally cell migration.
Gram positive organisms live primarily on the surface of your external barriers but if they reach
systemic circulation and cause infective endocarditis (eample,Staphylococcus aureus).
Sometimes Gram- positive bacteria causes’ disease inside the body, i.e. S. aureus cause septic
arthritis inside the body. Increased risk of disease resulted if they became resistant to antibiotics
due to release of immunosppressant virulent exotoxins and endotoxins..
Part I Identifying Your Customer’s Needs and Goals Chapter 1 A.pdfanandatalapatra
Part I
Identifying Your Customer’s
Needs and Goals
Chapter 1 Analyzing Business Goals and Constraints
Chapter 2 Analyzing Technical Goals and Tradeoffs
Chapter 3 Characterizing the Existing Internetwork
Chapter 4 Characterizing Network Traffic
Chapter 1
Analyzing Business
Goals and Constraints
This chapter serves as an introduction to the rest of the book by describing top-down
network design. The first section explains how to use a systematic, top-down process
when designing computer networks for your customers. Depending on your job, your
customers might consist of other departments within your company, those to whom you
are trying to sell products, or clients of your consulting business.
After describing the methodology, this chapter focuses on the first step in top-down network
design: analyzing your customer’s business goals. Business goals include the capability
to run network applications to meet corporate business objectives, and the need to
work within business constraints, such as budgets, limited networking personnel, and
tight timeframes.
This chapter also covers an important business constraint that some people call the
eighth layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model: workplace politics.
To ensure the success of your network design project, you should gain an understanding
of any corporate politics and policies at your customer’s site that could affect
your project.
The chapter concludes with a checklist to help you determine if you have addressed the
business issues in a network design project.
Using a Top-Down Network Design Methodology
According to Albert Einstein:
“The world we’ve made as a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far creates
problems that we cannot solve at the same level at which we created them.”
To paraphrase Einstein, networking professionals have the ability to create networks that
are so complex that when problems arise they can’t be solved using the same sort of
thinking that was used to create the networks. Add to this the fact that each upgrade,
patch, and modification to a network can also be created using complex and sometimes
4 Top-Down Network Design
convoluted thinking, and you soon realize that the result is a network that is hard to
understand and troubleshoot. A network created with this complexity often doesn’t perform
as well as expected, doesn’t scale as the need for growth arises (as it almost always
does), and doesn’t match a customer’s requirements. A solution to this problem is to use a
streamlined, systematic methodology in which the network or upgrade is designed in a
top-down fashion.
Many network design tools and methodologies in use today resemble the “connect-thedots”
game that some of us played as children. These tools let you place internetworking
devices on a palette and connect them with LAN or WAN media. The problem with this
methodology is that it skips the steps of analyzing a customer’s requirements and selecting
devices and media based on .
PrintTest.java import java.util.Scanner;public class PrintTest.pdfanandatalapatra
PrintTest.java
import java.util.Scanner;
public class PrintTest {
/**
* @param args
*/
public static void main(String[] args) {
// TODO Auto-generated method stub
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println(\"Enter the value :\");
int n = scan.nextInt();
for(int i =0; i
Solution
PrintTest.java
import java.util.Scanner;
public class PrintTest {
/**
* @param args
*/
public static void main(String[] args) {
// TODO Auto-generated method stub
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println(\"Enter the value :\");
int n = scan.nextInt();
for(int i =0; i.
JellyBean.javapackage jellybeantester;public class JellyBean {.pdfanandatalapatra
JellyBean.java
package jellybeantester;
public class JellyBean
{
//These are the 3 instance variables of a JellyBean object:
private String flavor;
private String color;
private boolean eatMe;
/**
* The purpose of this constructor is to move the parameters passed to the constructor
* into the instance variables of the JellyBean object The 2 parameters are:
* @param aFlavor
* @param aColor
*/
public JellyBean(String aFlavor, String aColor)
{
//Initialize each of the instance variables of the JellyBean object with the parameters passed to
the constructor
//Then, set eatMe attribute to false
this.flavor=aFlavor;
this.color=aColor;
}
//Setters and getters.
public String getFlavor()
{
return flavor;
}
public String getColor() {
return color;
}
public void setColor(String color) {
this.color = color;
}
public boolean isEatMe() {
return eatMe;
}
public void setEatMe(boolean eatMe) {
this.eatMe = eatMe;
}
public void setFlavor(String aFlavor)
{
flavor = aFlavor;
}
/**
*
* @return a String representation of all the attributes in the JellyBean class
*/
public String toString()
{
return \"\ Flavour = \"+getFlavor()+\"\ Color = \"+getColor()+\"\ Eat Me = \"+isEatMe()+\"\ \";
}
}
______________________________________________
JellyBeanTester.java
package jellybeantester;
import java.util.Scanner;
public class JellyBeanTester
{
// These are the 3 global variables that will each hold a JellyBean object. These variables
// can be accessed by any method in the tester class because they are global.
static JellyBean jb1;
static JellyBean jb2;
static JellyBean jb3;
static Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in);
/**
* @param args the command line arguments
*/
public static void main(String[] args)
{
createJellyBeanBag();
processJellyBeanBag();
}
/**
* The createJellyBeanBag method will ask the user for input, and will
* use that input to create 3 JellyBean objects.
*/
public static void createJellyBeanBag()
{
String userInputJBColor;
String userInputJBFlavor;
//Ask the user to enter the color of the first jelly bean object, and save their answer in
userInputJBColor:
System.out.print(\"Enter the Color of the First Jelly Bean :\");
userInputJBColor=sc.next();
//Ask the user to enter the flavor of the first jelly bean object, and save their answer in
userInputJBFlavor:
System.out.print(\"Enter the Flavour of First the Jelly Bean :\");
userInputJBFlavor=sc.next();
//Instantiate a JellyBean object using the userInputJBFlavor and userInputJBColor:
jb1 = new JellyBean(userInputJBFlavor, userInputJBColor);
//Ask the user to enter the color of the second jelly bean object, and save their answer in
userInputJBColor:
System.out.print(\"\ Enter the Color of the second Jelly Bean :\");
userInputJBColor=sc.next();
//Ask the user to enter the flavor of the second jelly bean object, and save their answer in
userInputJBFlavor:
System.out.print(\"Enter the Flavour of Second the Jelly Bean :\");
userInputJBFlavor=sc.next();
//Instantiate a JellyBean object using the userInputJBFlavor an.
In present DNA microarray technology, the different test-samples are.pdfanandatalapatra
In present DNA microarray technology, the different test-samples are pre-tagged with different
kind of fluorescnet tags whose intensity is automatically monitored by a computed software. This
software not only captures the signal from the array, but also quantizes the intensity of this signal
into a calculated number. This number deciphers the extent of expression levels of the gene to
which the fluorphore was attached to.
Here, the most crucial step is to detemine where the signal is coming from and if the signal is
present or not. Since a microarray contains millions of array data points, it is not possible for
normal human eyes to differentiate between two spots based upon their color and intensity. It is
not even required ot perform this function manually because millions of data points cannot be
quantized by human eye. Thus, the software is initially informed the emission and excitation
wavelengths of the fluorophores and thus, the laser equipped in the detection system
automatically records and quantizes the signal intensity without minutest involvement of human.
Thus, is does not matter if the researcher has normal vision or is a color blind, the data
acquisition will be performed solely by the software. Thus it is possible for a person who is
colorblind to successfully interpret a microarray scan becuase the data will be quantized into
numerical format in the end.
Solution
In present DNA microarray technology, the different test-samples are pre-tagged with different
kind of fluorescnet tags whose intensity is automatically monitored by a computed software. This
software not only captures the signal from the array, but also quantizes the intensity of this signal
into a calculated number. This number deciphers the extent of expression levels of the gene to
which the fluorphore was attached to.
Here, the most crucial step is to detemine where the signal is coming from and if the signal is
present or not. Since a microarray contains millions of array data points, it is not possible for
normal human eyes to differentiate between two spots based upon their color and intensity. It is
not even required ot perform this function manually because millions of data points cannot be
quantized by human eye. Thus, the software is initially informed the emission and excitation
wavelengths of the fluorophores and thus, the laser equipped in the detection system
automatically records and quantizes the signal intensity without minutest involvement of human.
Thus, is does not matter if the researcher has normal vision or is a color blind, the data
acquisition will be performed solely by the software. Thus it is possible for a person who is
colorblind to successfully interpret a microarray scan becuase the data will be quantized into
numerical format in the end..
In computer graphics vectors perform the operations are...1.Rotati.pdfanandatalapatra
In computer graphics vectors perform the operations are...
1.Rotation
2.Movement
3.Mirroring
4.Stretching
5.Skewing
6.Combination of primitives into complex objects
7.Transformations include set operations.
Solution
In computer graphics vectors perform the operations are...
1.Rotation
2.Movement
3.Mirroring
4.Stretching
5.Skewing
6.Combination of primitives into complex objects
7.Transformations include set operations..
Dirac theoremFor a simple network with n 3 vertices, if each ver.pdfanandatalapatra
Dirac theorem:
For a simple network with n 3 vertices, if each vertex has degree
at least n/2 (i.e., ki n/2, i), then the network has a Hamiltonian cycle,.
Proof: Let G be the connected graph
Let L = (i1,iL) = (i1, i2, . . . , iL) be the longest path.
The neighbors of vertex i1 must lie on
(i1, iL); the same is true for vertex iL, since if say i is not a neighbour, i i1 i2 ...iiL would be the
longest path contradicting our selection of the longest path.
The same for iL also.
So both i1 and iL are adjacent to vertices in the longest path L only,
Since degree of i1>k/2 and i1 is not adjacent to itself, k> n/2 +1
Let us assume a claim
There is some value of j (1jk) such that:
Incase claim is not true,
Since all vertices adjacent to L1 or Lk lie on L, there must be at least deg(L1) vertices on P not
adjacent to Lk.
Since all the vertices adjacent to Lk and pk itself also lie on P, the path must have at least
deg(L1)+deg(Lk)+1n+1 vertices.
But L has only n vertices: a contradiction.
This gives a cycle C=Lj+1Lj+2…LkLjLj1…L2L1Lj+1.
Suppose LC is nonempty.
Then since L is connected, there must be a vertex vGC adjacent to some Li.
So the path from v to Li and then around C to the vertex adjacent to Li is longer than L,
contradicting the definition of L.
Hence our assumption/claim is true.
Therefore all vertices in L are contained in C, making C a Hamilton cycle.
Solution
Dirac theorem:
For a simple network with n 3 vertices, if each vertex has degree
at least n/2 (i.e., ki n/2, i), then the network has a Hamiltonian cycle,.
Proof: Let G be the connected graph
Let L = (i1,iL) = (i1, i2, . . . , iL) be the longest path.
The neighbors of vertex i1 must lie on
(i1, iL); the same is true for vertex iL, since if say i is not a neighbour, i i1 i2 ...iiL would be the
longest path contradicting our selection of the longest path.
The same for iL also.
So both i1 and iL are adjacent to vertices in the longest path L only,
Since degree of i1>k/2 and i1 is not adjacent to itself, k> n/2 +1
Let us assume a claim
There is some value of j (1jk) such that:
Incase claim is not true,
Since all vertices adjacent to L1 or Lk lie on L, there must be at least deg(L1) vertices on P not
adjacent to Lk.
Since all the vertices adjacent to Lk and pk itself also lie on P, the path must have at least
deg(L1)+deg(Lk)+1n+1 vertices.
But L has only n vertices: a contradiction.
This gives a cycle C=Lj+1Lj+2…LkLjLj1…L2L1Lj+1.
Suppose LC is nonempty.
Then since L is connected, there must be a vertex vGC adjacent to some Li.
So the path from v to Li and then around C to the vertex adjacent to Li is longer than L,
contradicting the definition of L.
Hence our assumption/claim is true.
Therefore all vertices in L are contained in C, making C a Hamilton cycle..
Construction Supervisor ResponsibilitiesCompletes construction pr.pdfanandatalapatra
Construction Supervisor Responsibilities:
Completes construction projects by planning, organizing, and controlling projects; completing
quality inspections; supervising sub-contractors and staff.
Construction Supervisor Duties:
Solution
Construction Supervisor Responsibilities:
Completes construction projects by planning, organizing, and controlling projects; completing
quality inspections; supervising sub-contractors and staff.
Construction Supervisor Duties:.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
1.The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers.The mod.pdf
1. 1.The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers.The model partitions a
communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven
layers.OSI means Open Systems Interconnectionis reference model for how applications can
communicate over a network This article describes and explains them, beginning with the lowest
in the hierarchy the physical and proceeding to the highest the application. The layers are stay in
this way:
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
features osi model:
If network communications need to happen with out any trouble, many problems must be
solved. Coordinating all these problems are so complex and not easy to manage.
Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
Troubleshooting is easier by separate network.
2.
the Data process that takes placethe message from one host to another cab be done as such:
The data to be passed from one host to another can be composed at the first top layer of the
passing device layer N into a protocol data unit.
The protocal data unit is passed to next layer, where it is known as the service data unit.
At next layer let us consider that layer be N-1 the service data unit is observed the with a
header,a footer,some times both,producing a layer next protocal data unit. It is then passed to
layer next layer N-2.
The process repeated until reaching the lower level,from which the data is transmitted to the
receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of
SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header and/or footer, until reaching
the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
3.
ISO
1.OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as a communication gateway between
2. the network and end user.
2.OSI is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of
a computing or telecommunication system irrespective of their underlying structure and
technology being used.
3.OSI is a reference model.
4.The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers
TCp/IP
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which the Internet has developed. It is a
communication protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a network.
2.TCP/IP is a core protocol of the Internet Protocol Suite (IPS). It is the basic communication
language or protocol of the internet. It can be used as a communications protocol in a private
network either an intranet or an extranet
3.TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model.
4.The tcp/ip can contains only 4 laters
4.1.network inerface layer:The most widely-known Application layer protocols are those used
for the exchange of user information.
2.internet layer:The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
3.transport layer:The Transport layer also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer is
responsible for providing the Application layer with session and datagram communication
services.
4.Application Layer:The Application layer provides applications the ability to access the
services of the other layers and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data.
5.
Layer 2 switches operate using the data link layer addresses.Traditional switching operates at
layer 2 of the OSI model, where packets are sent to a specific switch port based on destination
MAC addresses. Link-layer, hardware, or MAC-layer addresses identify individual devices.
Most hardware devices are permanently assigned this number during the manufacturing
process.Large layer 2 broadcast domains can be susceptible to certain unintended problems, such
as broadcast storms, which have the ability to cause network outages.
Layer 1, also referred to as the Physical Layer, describes the electrical interface and isn't of
much interest to switch vendors.Switches operating at Layer 2 are very fast because they’re just
sorting MAC addresses, but they do not look at the Layer 3 portion of the packet to learn
anything more.
Layer 3 intelligent packet forwarding (routing) based on Layer 3 information is traditionally the
function of routers.Layer 3 switches use network or IP addresses that identify locations on the
3. network. A location can be a LAN workstation, a location in a computer’s memory, or even a
different packet of data traveling through a network.A Layer 3 switch is basically a switch that
can perform routing functions in addition to switching. A client computer requires a default
gateway for layer 3 connectivity to remote subnets.you can think of the layer 3 engine being
integrated into the switch itself.
Switches operating at Layer 3 take more time examining packets than Layer 3 devices and
incorporate routing functions to actively calculate the best way to send a packet to its destination.
Solution
1.The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers.The model partitions a
communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven
layers.OSI means Open Systems Interconnectionis reference model for how applications can
communicate over a network This article describes and explains them, beginning with the lowest
in the hierarchy the physical and proceeding to the highest the application. The layers are stay in
this way:
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
features osi model:
If network communications need to happen with out any trouble, many problems must be
solved. Coordinating all these problems are so complex and not easy to manage.
Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
Troubleshooting is easier by separate network.
2.
the Data process that takes placethe message from one host to another cab be done as such:
The data to be passed from one host to another can be composed at the first top layer of the
passing device layer N into a protocol data unit.
The protocal data unit is passed to next layer, where it is known as the service data unit.
At next layer let us consider that layer be N-1 the service data unit is observed the with a
header,a footer,some times both,producing a layer next protocal data unit. It is then passed to
4. layer next layer N-2.
The process repeated until reaching the lower level,from which the data is transmitted to the
receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of
SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header and/or footer, until reaching
the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
3.
ISO
1.OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as a communication gateway between
the network and end user.
2.OSI is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of
a computing or telecommunication system irrespective of their underlying structure and
technology being used.
3.OSI is a reference model.
4.The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers
TCp/IP
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which the Internet has developed. It is a
communication protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a network.
2.TCP/IP is a core protocol of the Internet Protocol Suite (IPS). It is the basic communication
language or protocol of the internet. It can be used as a communications protocol in a private
network either an intranet or an extranet
3.TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model.
4.The tcp/ip can contains only 4 laters
4.1.network inerface layer:The most widely-known Application layer protocols are those used
for the exchange of user information.
2.internet layer:The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
3.transport layer:The Transport layer also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer is
responsible for providing the Application layer with session and datagram communication
services.
4.Application Layer:The Application layer provides applications the ability to access the
services of the other layers and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data.
5.
Layer 2 switches operate using the data link layer addresses.Traditional switching operates at
layer 2 of the OSI model, where packets are sent to a specific switch port based on destination
MAC addresses. Link-layer, hardware, or MAC-layer addresses identify individual devices.
5. Most hardware devices are permanently assigned this number during the manufacturing
process.Large layer 2 broadcast domains can be susceptible to certain unintended problems, such
as broadcast storms, which have the ability to cause network outages.
Layer 1, also referred to as the Physical Layer, describes the electrical interface and isn't of
much interest to switch vendors.Switches operating at Layer 2 are very fast because they’re just
sorting MAC addresses, but they do not look at the Layer 3 portion of the packet to learn
anything more.
Layer 3 intelligent packet forwarding (routing) based on Layer 3 information is traditionally the
function of routers.Layer 3 switches use network or IP addresses that identify locations on the
network. A location can be a LAN workstation, a location in a computer’s memory, or even a
different packet of data traveling through a network.A Layer 3 switch is basically a switch that
can perform routing functions in addition to switching. A client computer requires a default
gateway for layer 3 connectivity to remote subnets.you can think of the layer 3 engine being
integrated into the switch itself.
Switches operating at Layer 3 take more time examining packets than Layer 3 devices and
incorporate routing functions to actively calculate the best way to send a packet to its destination.