The document provides detailed information about the anatomy and function of the spinal cord. It can be summarized as follows:
The spinal cord is a cylindrical column of nervous tissue that extends from the brainstem and provides motor and sensory innervation to the body below the head. It is surrounded by protective meninges and terminates around the L1 vertebra in adults. The spinal cord is divided into regions that each give rise to pairs of spinal nerves which innervate different parts of the body. Injuries to the spinal cord can cause paralysis or other functional impairments depending on the level and severity of the injury.
Describe the location, function, and communications of ventricles of the brain
Name the parts and describe the boundaries of the lateral ventricle
Describe the third ventricle
Describe the fourth ventricle
Describe the location, function, and communications of ventricles of the brain
Name the parts and describe the boundaries of the lateral ventricle
Describe the third ventricle
Describe the fourth ventricle
1.Anatomy of the Medulla
2. Introduction to Brainstem Anatomy of the brainstem includes ( midbrain-pons-medulla ) is very complicated !! •It connects spinal cord to the cerebrum. • The mid brain pons, and medulla are connected to cerebellum posteriorly. •1 - ascending an descending tracts that connect brain to spinal cord. •2 - cranial nerves nuclei and their connections •3 - Reticular formation •4 - others e.g (olivarynucleus in MO tapizusbody in pons and red nucleus in MB )
3. Medulla oblongata •The medulla oblongata is the part of the brainstem between the pons and spinal cord •It extends through the foramen magnum to the level of the atlas. •Medulla is vital for our function, without medulla we die. •Above the foramen magnum it is embraced dorsally by the cerebellar hemispheres. 1.The lower end which contains the upward continuation of the central canal of the spinal cord is the ‘closed part of the medulla’, 2.The upper end, where the canal comes to the surface as the lower part of the floor of the fourth ventricle, is the ‘open part’.
4. Medulla contd….. MO is lowest 3 cm of the brainstem •it extend from the ponto- medullary junction until plane below foramina magnum for about 0.5 cm. •Medulla spinalis have a central canal which prolonged into its lower half to open in the fourth ventricle at its upper half. •CSF is encircle the MO from outside ( subarachnoid space ) and inside ( central canal ). •MO is between the two lobes of cerebellum ( anterior cerebellar notch )
5. EXTERNAL FEATURES AND RELATIONS • 3Cm long. • Located at the caudal portion of brainstem • Upper limit is cerebello-pontine angle • Transverse plane that above C1 (suboccipital) intersects upper border of atlas dorsally and centre of dens ventrally marks lower limit
6. VENTRAL SURFACE • Ventral median fissure extends from foramen coecum to caudal end of pyramid decussation • Lateral to median fissure is pyramid • Lat to pyramid is the ventrolateral sulcus (VLS) • Hypoglossal nerve rootlets emerge from VLS • Lat to VLS is olive which contains inf olivary nucleus • Inferior cerebellar peduncle connects medulla with cerebellum and forms side wall of caudal half of fourth ventricle
7. Ventral Surface Pyramid: Swelling on each side of anterior median fissure. • Composed of bundles of nerve fibers, (corticospinal fibers) originate from the precentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex. • The pyramids taper inferiorly and majority of the descending fibers decussate to the opposite side. Olive: • Olives are the anterolateral oval elevations produced by the underlying inferior olivary nuclei. • From the groove between the pyramid and the olive, the rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve emerge
8. LATERAL ASPECT • Roots of glossopharyngeal , vagus and cranial division of accessory nerves are attached to the medulla dorsal to olive.
9. Dorsal surface At dorsal surface of closed part of medulla, gracile and cuneate fasciculi continue from the spinal
The sacral plexus is a network of nerves formed by the lumbosacral trunk (L4, L5) and sacral spinal nerves (S1 - S4). The sacral plexus is located on the posterior pelvic wall, posterior to the internal iliac vessels and ureter, and anterior to the piriformis muscle.
1.Anatomy of the Medulla
2. Introduction to Brainstem Anatomy of the brainstem includes ( midbrain-pons-medulla ) is very complicated !! •It connects spinal cord to the cerebrum. • The mid brain pons, and medulla are connected to cerebellum posteriorly. •1 - ascending an descending tracts that connect brain to spinal cord. •2 - cranial nerves nuclei and their connections •3 - Reticular formation •4 - others e.g (olivarynucleus in MO tapizusbody in pons and red nucleus in MB )
3. Medulla oblongata •The medulla oblongata is the part of the brainstem between the pons and spinal cord •It extends through the foramen magnum to the level of the atlas. •Medulla is vital for our function, without medulla we die. •Above the foramen magnum it is embraced dorsally by the cerebellar hemispheres. 1.The lower end which contains the upward continuation of the central canal of the spinal cord is the ‘closed part of the medulla’, 2.The upper end, where the canal comes to the surface as the lower part of the floor of the fourth ventricle, is the ‘open part’.
4. Medulla contd….. MO is lowest 3 cm of the brainstem •it extend from the ponto- medullary junction until plane below foramina magnum for about 0.5 cm. •Medulla spinalis have a central canal which prolonged into its lower half to open in the fourth ventricle at its upper half. •CSF is encircle the MO from outside ( subarachnoid space ) and inside ( central canal ). •MO is between the two lobes of cerebellum ( anterior cerebellar notch )
5. EXTERNAL FEATURES AND RELATIONS • 3Cm long. • Located at the caudal portion of brainstem • Upper limit is cerebello-pontine angle • Transverse plane that above C1 (suboccipital) intersects upper border of atlas dorsally and centre of dens ventrally marks lower limit
6. VENTRAL SURFACE • Ventral median fissure extends from foramen coecum to caudal end of pyramid decussation • Lateral to median fissure is pyramid • Lat to pyramid is the ventrolateral sulcus (VLS) • Hypoglossal nerve rootlets emerge from VLS • Lat to VLS is olive which contains inf olivary nucleus • Inferior cerebellar peduncle connects medulla with cerebellum and forms side wall of caudal half of fourth ventricle
7. Ventral Surface Pyramid: Swelling on each side of anterior median fissure. • Composed of bundles of nerve fibers, (corticospinal fibers) originate from the precentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex. • The pyramids taper inferiorly and majority of the descending fibers decussate to the opposite side. Olive: • Olives are the anterolateral oval elevations produced by the underlying inferior olivary nuclei. • From the groove between the pyramid and the olive, the rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve emerge
8. LATERAL ASPECT • Roots of glossopharyngeal , vagus and cranial division of accessory nerves are attached to the medulla dorsal to olive.
9. Dorsal surface At dorsal surface of closed part of medulla, gracile and cuneate fasciculi continue from the spinal
The sacral plexus is a network of nerves formed by the lumbosacral trunk (L4, L5) and sacral spinal nerves (S1 - S4). The sacral plexus is located on the posterior pelvic wall, posterior to the internal iliac vessels and ureter, and anterior to the piriformis muscle.
Anatomy of brachial plexus explained in detail along with nerve supply of all the muscles of upper limb and various paralysis caused by brachial plexus injury
Assalamualaikum everyone,
Here is the full curriculum of Anatomy of Spinal Cord Injury. This presentation was made by me at my student life where I have done a lot of researchs, findings and notes.
Please correct me if you find anything wrong by a responsive comment !
I wish you all the very best!
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
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2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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Evaluation of antidepressant activity of clitoris ternatea in animals
16 Spinal Cord And Spinal Nerves
1. The spinal cord provides a vital link between the brain and the rest of the body, and yet it exhibits some functional independence from the brain.
2. The adult spinal cord travels from the foramen magnum and terminates within the vertebral foramen of the first lumbar vertebra (L1) in adults.
3. The spinal cord can be subdivided into five regions: cervical region, thoracic region, lumbar region, sacral region, and coccygeal region (which has only one pair of nerves). Don’t be confused and think that the sacral “region” of the spinal cord is surrounded by sacral vertebrae. It is NOT!
4. The diameter of the spinal cord is the largest in the cervical region and there is a larger proportion of white matter compared to gray matter.
5. The diameter of the sacral region of the spinal cord (which is surrounded by the T12/L1 vertebrae) is the smallest and the proportion of gray matter is largest in the spinal cord.
6. The cervical enlargement contains the neurons that innervate the upper limbs The lumbar enlargement contains the neurons that innervate the lower limbs.
7. The tapering end of the spinal cord is called the conus medullaris . The conus medullaris is surrounded by L1 in and adult and L2 in a child .
8. The adult spinal cord terminates at the level of the first lumbar vertebra (L1) In a developing child , the spinal cord can extend to the level of the second lumbar vertebra (L2)
9. The cauda equina (horse’s tail) is composed of nerves that arise from the conus medullaris and extend inferiorly.
10. The filum terminale , which is composed of pia mater, extends from the conus medullaris to the coccyx. Note the subarachnoid space also continues for some distance.
11. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that serve defined segments of the human body.
12. There are 8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves. This is possible because the first pair (C1 spinal nerves) exits the spinal column between the occipital bone and the atlas (C1). The remaining 7 pairs (C2-C8 spinal nerves) exit below each of the 7 cervical vertebrae via the intervertebral foramina. All the spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
13. The spinal cord is surrounded by the dura, arachnoid, and pia maters (the meninges)
14. WHAT IS THE NAME OF THE NERVE THAT EXITS VIA THE INTERVERTEBRAL FORAMEN BETWEEN THE ATLAS AND THE AXIS? A VAGUS NERVE B FIRST CERVICAL SPINAL NERVE C ACCESSORY NERVE D LONG THORACIC NERVE E SPINAL NERVE C2
15. The epidural space is between the vertebra and the dura mater
20. The dura mater extends along the entire length of the vertebral canal and surrounds the spinal cord. It also extends along the initial portion of the radiating spinal nerves
22. In this midsagittal picture #3 is the dura mater, #5 is the spinal cord, # 4 is the epidural space, and #6 is the subarachnoid space where CSF is located (#1 is an intervertebral disc and #2 is the body of a vertebrae).
24. Spinal taps are done between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae because there is no spinal cord at that location
25. The tip of the needle is inserted into the subarachnoid space outside the cauda equina and spinal fluid is removed for testing.
26. The entering pressure can be determined when the needle is inserted into the subarachnoid space during a spinal tap.
27. Spinal fluid is normally crystal clear like water. Cloudy spinal fluid, like the specimen shown, is a sign of white blood cells (pus). The most common cause for white blood cells in the spinal fluid is viral or bacterial meningitis.
28. The pia mater directly adheres to the spinal cord
29. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS TYPICALLY PENETRATED DURING A ROUTINE SPINAL TAP? A PIA MATER B NUCLEUS PULPOSUS C ANULUS FIBROSUS D SPINAL CORD E NONE OF THE ABOVE
30. The cross-sectional view shows that the gray matter is central and the white matter is peripheral
31. The peripheral white matter contains ascending and descending tracts of nerves traveling to and from the brain. The central gray matter serves as a center for spinal reflexes.
32. The central canal runs the entire length of the spinal cord, is contiguous with the brain and contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
33. The spinal cord develops as 31 segments , each of which gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves that emerge from the cord through the intervertebral foraminae
34. Nerves can be sensory, motor, or mixed (sensory and motor)
35. Mixed nerves carry both types of information and some axons are transmitting impulses in one direction, while other axons are transmitting impulses in the opposite direction. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
36. There are 8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves. This is possible because the first pair (C1 spinal nerves) exits the spinal column between the occipital bone and the atlas (C1). The remaining 7 pairs (C2-C8 spinal nerves) exit below each of the 7 cervical vertebrae via the intervertebral foramina. All the spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
37. Most of the spinal nerves are associated with specific dermatomes (an area of skin innervated by all the cutaneous neurons of a certain spinal or cranial nerve).
38. Dermatome map. Note the trigeminal nerve has dermatomes on the face. trigeminal
39. Dermatomes of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) are seen on the face
40. Note that the trigeminal nerve has dermatomes on the face (see white area) and that the first pair of cervical spinal nerves (C1 spinal nerves) are not represented on the surface at all.
41.
42. Chickenpox (varicella) virus is acquired by the respiratory route and causes a head-to-toe rash in children . The chickenpox virus can invade the ganglia along the spinal cord and remain latent until adulthood. It can then be activated by suppression of the immune system. It will then travel through sensory axons of a single dermatome and erupt onto the skin in a single dermatome on one side of the body (unilateral eruption)
43. Shingles is a reactivation of latent chickenpox from childhood that travels to the surface via a single nerve on one side of the body.
44. Shingles involving the first (ophthalmic) division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) on face.
45. Explanation of referred pain . Numerous cutaneous and visceral sensory neurons share the same ascending tracts.
47. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS CORRECT ABOUT SHINGLES? A ADULTS WITH THIS CONDITION CAN CAUSE A HEAD-TO-TOE RASH IN CHILDREN B IT TYPICALLY OCCURS BILATERALLY C IT IS TRIGGERED BY ETHYL ALCOHOL AND PROLONGED NERVE COMPRESSION D IT IS MOST COMMON IN PERSONS UNDER 50 E ALL OF THE ABOVE
48. The majority of the spinal nerves combine and then split again as networks of nerves referred to as plexuses. The exceptions are T2-T12 and S5-Co1, which do NOT form plexuses
49. The cervical plexus is formed primarily by spinal nerves C1-C4 (C5 is not considered part of this plexus, even though it contributes some axons)
50. The cervical plexus, and particularly spinal nerves C3, C4, and part of C5, give rise to the phrenic nerve which innervates the diaphragm . Injury above C3 would lead to death by suffocation.
51. The brachial plexus is formed primarily by spinal nerves C5-C8, and T1. This plexus gives rise to five nerves that serve the arm or hand.
52. There are five nerves that arise from the brachial plexus
53. The axillary nerve innervates the teres minor muscle and the deltoid muscle. It receives sensory information from the superolateral part of the arm and skin.
54. The median nerve innervates muscles in the antebrachium and manus. It receives sensory information from the palmar side of fingers #1, #2, #3, and the lateral one-half of finger #4 and from the dorsal tips of these same fingers.
59. When draping my arm around my daughter’s neck for prolonged periods I would develop anesthesia of fingers #1-#4 only from pressure on my median nerve.
60. The musculocutaneous nerve innervates the biceps brachii muscle and several other muscles. It receives sensory input from the lateral surface of the forearm.
61. The radial nerve innervates the triceps brachii and numerous muscles of the antebrachium. It receives sensory input from the posterior arm and forearm surface and the dorsolateral side of the hand.
62. The radial nerve receives sensory input from the posterior arm and forearm surface and the dorsolateral surface of the hand .
63. The ulnar nerve , which passes near the medial epicondyle of the humerus, is the “funny bone”. It innervates muscles in the antebrachium and manus. It receives sensory input from the skin of the dorsal and palmar aspects of fingers #5, and the medial half of finger #4.
64. The ulnar nerve receives sensations from the skin of the dorsal and palmar surfaces of fingers #5 and medial half of fingers #4.
65. Atrophy of the arm muscles caused by a brachial plexus injury in adulthood. Read about brachial plexus injuries in the clinical view in your text.
66. A PATIENT HAS SUFFERED A FRACTURE OF THE SURGICAL NECK OF THE FEMUR THAT IS SUCCESSFULLY REPAIRED WITH A MEDULLARY ROD THAT BRIDGES THE FRACTURE LINE. HOWEVER, AS THE WEEKS PASS, THE PATIENT IS UNABLE TO ABDUCT THE ARM AND SUFFERS FROM ANESTHESIA ALONG THE SUPEROLATERAL SKIN OF THE ARM . WHAT HAS BEEN DAMAGED? A MEDIAN NERVE B MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE C AXILLARY NERVE D ULNAR NERVE E RADIAL NERVE
67. The lumbar plexus is formed by spinal nerves L1-L4. It gives rise to two major nerves: the femoral nerve and the obturator nerve
68. Note the two major nerves that arise from the lumbar plexus
69. The femoral nerve innervates the quadriceps femoris muscles on the anterior of the thigh to help extend the knee. It also innervates the sartorius muscle and several other muscles. It receives sensory input from the anterior and inferomedial thigh as well as the medial aspect of the leg.
70. The obturator nerve innervates the gracilis and several other muscles. It receives sensory information from the superomedial skin of the thigh
71. The sacral plexus is formed by spinal nerves from L4, L5, and S1-S4. It gives rise to the sciatic nerve , which is actually composed of two nerves: the tibial nerve and the common fibular (common peroneal) nerve.
72. The sacral plexus gives rise to two principal nerves: the tibial nerve and the common fibular (peroneal) nerve. The sciatic nerve is composed of these two nerves wrapped in a common connective sheath. These two nerves separate just above the popliteal fossa.
73. The sciatic nerve splits into its separate components [tibial nerve and common fibular (peroneal) nerve] just superior to the popliteal fossa.
74. A tight piriformis muscle can compress the sciatic nerve
76. The tibial nerve innervates the hamstrings, the gastrocnemius, the soleus, and several other muscles. It receives sensory input from the skin on the plantar surface of the foot.
77. The common fibular nerve (common peroneal nerve) innervates the peroneus (fibularis) longus, the tibialis anterior , and several other muscles of the leg and foot. This is the branch of the sciatic nerve that caused me problems! It receives sensory input from the anterolateral part of the leg, the toes, and dorsum of the foot.
78. Read about sacral plexus injuries and sciatica in the clinical view in your text.
79. Reflexes are rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus
80. An example occurs when you accidentally touch a hot object. You remove your hand even before you are completely aware of the heat. A reflex can precede sensation (a reflex does not need to involve the brain)
82. Generally, there are five steps involved in a neural reflex : stimulus, transmission via a sensory neuron, processing in CNS, transmission via a motor neuron, and an effector (muscle or gland) responds.
83. Read in your text about different types of reflexes for your own information if you desire.
84. The cranial (superior) portion of the neural tube expands and develops into the brain, while the caudal (inferior) part of the neural tube forms the spinal cord. The hollow neural canal develops into the central canal of the spinal cord. Neural tube
85. The bony vertebral column (dark line shown) grows faster than the spinal cord . A newborn’s spinal cord extends to about the level of L 3 . A child’s spinal cord may extend to the level of L 2 . An adult’s spinal cord typically terminates at the level of L 1 . Bony vertebral column
86. The inner delicate spinal cord terminates in an adult, as the conus medullaris, at the level of the L 1 vertebra.
87. Damage to the spinal cord can lead to paralysis or death
88. Severing the spinal cord above C3 typically leads to death by asphyxiation because the victim cannot use the spinal nerves to contract the intercostal muscles and cannot utilize the phrenic nerve to contract the diaphragm.
90. In his fall, he crushed both the atlas (C1) and the axis (C2). He would have died by asphyxiation, but his accident was witnessed and rescue breathing was done. He became a very famous respirator-dependent quadriplegic .
92. Christopher Reeeve shortly before his death from an infected bed sore (decubitus ulcer). He did a great deal to advance research on spinal trauma.
93.
94. Damage below C3 also results in quadriplegia , but the person can still utilize their diaphragm for breathing via their intact phrenic nerves .
95.
96.
97. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS CORRECT ? A “FOOT DROP” IS TYPICALLY CAUSED BY DAMAGE TO THE COMMON PERONEAL NERVE B THE OBTURATOR NERVE STIMULATES ADDUCTION OF THE THIGH C THE EMBRYONIC NEURAL CANAL BECOMES THE CENTRAL CANAL OF THE SPINAL CORD D THE PHRENIC NERVE IS FUNCTIONAL FOLLOWING TRANSECTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD AT C 5 /C 6 E ALL OF THE ABOVE