This PPT contains Unit 2 Biology of behaviour for F.Y.B.Sc. Nursing students. The biology of behavior, also known as behavioral neuroscience or psychobiology, explores the relationship between biological processes and behavior. It delves into how the brain, nervous system, and other physiological factors influence behavior, emotions, thoughts, and actions. Understanding this relationship helps us comprehend various aspects of human and animal behavior.
This presentation is prepared according to the syllabus of Basic BSc nursing students given by INC. for the better learning and knowledge please refer the books.
This PPT contains Unit 2 Biology of behaviour for F.Y.B.Sc. Nursing students. The biology of behavior, also known as behavioral neuroscience or psychobiology, explores the relationship between biological processes and behavior. It delves into how the brain, nervous system, and other physiological factors influence behavior, emotions, thoughts, and actions. Understanding this relationship helps us comprehend various aspects of human and animal behavior.
This presentation is prepared according to the syllabus of Basic BSc nursing students given by INC. for the better learning and knowledge please refer the books.
This content is regarding body mind relationship which is part of nursing students syllabus. This topic will be useful for those who are studying psychology and other medical science subjects.
Psychology of vulnerable individual:challenged, women , sick, unit 4, psychol...Sumity Arora
The Psychology of physically or mentally challenged persons or those with special needs is an area which is gaining in importance.
Challenged:
• Physical
Mental •
Social
• Emotional
One of the important assumption in health care is psychology of individual plays an important role either in the development of or recovery from diseases.
http://www.helpwithassignment.com/
Introduction: Clinical sociology merges sociological principles with applied practice to enhance individual and collective well-being. It leverages sociological insights to diagnose, intervene, and improve social issues, emphasizing the practical application of sociological knowledge in therapeutic contexts.
Definition: Clinical sociology applies sociological theories and methods to analyze and address social issues impacting individuals and communities. It focuses on practical interventions, collaborating with various stakeholders to foster positive social change, resilience, and empowerment. In essence, it bridges the gap between academic sociology and real-world challenges, aiming to improve social functioning and well-being.
PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR - UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY FOR NURSES, GNM 1ST YR. Ar...Arun Beborta
In this unit we shall discuss about different aspects of human behavior, the what, why, how, when where of human behavior. We will also see the basic needs of man according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. We shall discuss the dynamics of human behavior, motives and drives.
This content is regarding body mind relationship which is part of nursing students syllabus. This topic will be useful for those who are studying psychology and other medical science subjects.
Psychology of vulnerable individual:challenged, women , sick, unit 4, psychol...Sumity Arora
The Psychology of physically or mentally challenged persons or those with special needs is an area which is gaining in importance.
Challenged:
• Physical
Mental •
Social
• Emotional
One of the important assumption in health care is psychology of individual plays an important role either in the development of or recovery from diseases.
http://www.helpwithassignment.com/
Introduction: Clinical sociology merges sociological principles with applied practice to enhance individual and collective well-being. It leverages sociological insights to diagnose, intervene, and improve social issues, emphasizing the practical application of sociological knowledge in therapeutic contexts.
Definition: Clinical sociology applies sociological theories and methods to analyze and address social issues impacting individuals and communities. It focuses on practical interventions, collaborating with various stakeholders to foster positive social change, resilience, and empowerment. In essence, it bridges the gap between academic sociology and real-world challenges, aiming to improve social functioning and well-being.
PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR - UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY FOR NURSES, GNM 1ST YR. Ar...Arun Beborta
In this unit we shall discuss about different aspects of human behavior, the what, why, how, when where of human behavior. We will also see the basic needs of man according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. We shall discuss the dynamics of human behavior, motives and drives.
developmental psychology.pptx for nursing studentsSulekhaDeshmukh
there is notes of developmental psychology it is very important chapter of psychology i make this notes in very easy method easy you can understand, in this unit will get knowledge about the psychological development according to age and what psychological changes will be there according to age, about all these will get knowledge except of these topic will get knowledge about the psychology of challenged individual, psychology of women and psychology of group, this notes will help you for exam if you loke so please like
"The development tasks of the infant; Motor development; Perceptual development; Language development; Social development; the concept 'attachment': phases of attachment, types of attachment, factors influencing attachment (The mother’s personality, Her general attitude towards children, The quality of the marital relationship, The attitude of her husband towards the child and Her socio-economic situation); the role of the father; The role of care-givers and siblings; Stranger anxiety during infancy; Separation anxiety during infancy; Socialization process during infancy and Parental influence .
An important presentation on personality development, one can improve his/her personality or present it as topic given in educational development courses.
Theory of Psychosocial Development
Theory of Psychosexual Development
Theory of Cognitive development
Theory of Moral Development
Prepared for Nursing Students
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Health Education on prevention of hypertensionRadhika kulvi
Hypertension is a chronic condition of concern due to its role in the causation of coronary heart diseases. Hypertension is a worldwide epidemic and important risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke and renal diseases. Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels and is sufficient to maintain tissue perfusion during activity and rest. Hypertension is sustained elevation of BP. In adults, HTN exists when systolic blood pressure is equal to or greater than 140mmHg or diastolic BP is equal to or greater than 90mmHg. The
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
2. • It’s a scientific study of changes that occur in human beings over the
course of their life which examines biological, physical, psychological
and behavioural changes.
• Principles of Development:
• Development is continuous.
• Early foundations are critical.
• Maturation and learning play an important rule.
• Development is sequential and orderly.
• Rate of development varies from one individual to another.
• Each phase of development has its own hazards.
• Development is aided by stimulation.
• Development is affected by cultural changes.
3. Life stages:
• Psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explains eight
stages of development through which a healthy developing human
should pass from infant to late adulthood.
• Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages:
• Infancy (Birth to 18 months)
• Early childhood(18 months to 3 years)
• Middle childhood(3-6 years)
• Late childhood (6 to12 years)
• Adolescence (13 to 19 years)
• Early adulthood (20 to 40 years)
• Middle adulthood (40-60 years)
• Late adulthood (from 60 years)
4. Infancy(Neonatal development)
• The newborn or neonatal stage lasts for first four weeks. This is the time of transition from total
depending of prenatal life to a more independent creative existence. The rhythms of breathing,
feeding, sleeping and elimination are established.
• Reflexes: Neonatal are born with abilities to perceive and respond to some parts of their world in
an organized and effective way. Groping for the breast, to suck when an object is placed in the
mouth and swallow when milk or other liquids are poured in the mouth.
• Other reflexes are, They turn their heads to strong odor and the direction of the sound, They
show positive reaction to sweet stimulus and negative reaction to salt, bitter and sour tastes.
• Motor development: The infant starts moving the hands, head that show the beginning of further
motor development such as turning the body, creeping, crawling, standing and walking.
• 2-4 months—Head and back support.
• 4-6 months—Can sit with support.
• 8-10 months—Can sit without support.
• 10-12 months—Can stand with support.
• 12-14 months—Can walk with support.
• 14-16 months—Can walk alone
5. • Social development: The first relationship most infant develops is with parents
especially with mother. Attachment is an early, stable, affectionate relationship
with mother.
• In absence of mother they have shown fear and refused to relate to others.
Psychologists have said that it is essential for mental health that the infant
must have warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother.
• Emotional development: Smiling appears at different ages for different reasons.
Some smile is seen even in newborn, which is automatic and hardly emotional.
• By the 3rd and 4th months infants smile at their mothers. By 5th month,
infants begin to combine smiling and laughing. By 12th month they laugh at
funny figures like human mask.
• Adjustment problems in infancy: Adjustment problems between the infants and
parents may experience at this stage. They are stubborn and short tempered.
• Sometimes these stresses involved in coping with infant’s problems may make
parents inadequate. In this regard counselling for parents is required
6. Early childhood and middle childhood (18 months-6 years)
• During this stage, their transition is from sensory thinking to language development.
The frequency and intensity of peer interaction force the child to deal with aggressive
impulses and learning how to help
• The child develops identity concept such as gender identity, self-concept. Egocentric is
also present.
• Language development: The steps involved in language development are quite similar
in children in variety of culture. It starts with monosyllable such as ‘mummy’ to a
single sentence as ‘I want milk’. Later it develops complex structure.
• Social development: The child’s behaviour and attitude are brought into harmony with
socialization.
• Parent/Child relationship: The child’s increasing physical power and language skill
transforms the nature of parent child relationship. The child becomes manageable
than before. At this stage parent and child behaviour influence each other.
7. • Sex roles: Children of both sexes may initially adopt traditionally feminine and
maternal behaviours. By the age of 4 to 5 years boys begin to show traditional
male type of behaviour. The toys they choose and the roles they play in games
become increasingly masculine. At the same age girls starts showing feminine
type of behaviour.
• Pre-school behaviour: Self-control and autonomy are initiated at this stage.
Pre-schoolers can be aggressive but they can also be touchingly, helpful,
generous and comforting. It happens through four stages.
• In the 1st stage, infants have trouble-differentiating self from others. They
often cry when other children cry, and laugh when other children laugh.
• In the 2nd stage, they develop a sense of all, as different from others.
• In the 3rd stage, they show specific expression of emotion.
• In the 4th stage, children help other children who are very dull and
withdrawn.
• Adjustment problems: They show problem such as demanding, attention,
disobedience, stubborn behaviour and other strong expression.
8. Late Childhood (School Going Stage)
• Social development: It includes classmates and teachers. Between the age of 6 to 12
years most of the children develop friendships.
• They learn how to organize groups. At school and playgrounds, the child develops skills
that help him to compete, cooperate and get along successfully with others.
• The child becomes somewhat independent of the family and finds a place for himself
among his peer groups.
• During this stage the child develops a sense of industry and learns the rewards of
performance and diligence.
• The adjustment problem at this stage is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority if
it is unable to master the tasks set by teachers and parents, Group games with rules,
which have to be followed, help to teach moral rules to the child.
• It is called latency because sexual interests are repressed and lie dormant till puberty.
9. Puberty and Adolescence (13- 19 years of age)
• The transitional period from childhood to adulthood is known as adolescence.
• Physical changes: Towards the end of later childhood, sexual changes or puberty begins.
Secondary sexual characteristics develop like enlarged hips and breasts develop in girls and
muscular development and voice changes in boys. Both sexes begin to grow pubic hairs.
Puberty is completed when primary sexual functioning occurs.
• Social changes: Because of conflict over dependency— independency needs, the adolescent
may be hostile towards adults, particularly parents and teachers and rebellious towards
authority. He craves for love, recognition and encouragement.
• Achieving identity: Developmental task at this stage is to develop a sense of identity
regarding occupational, familial and social roles, as opposed they may develop role confusion.
• Social development: Relationships with peer, family and heterosexual relationships influence
this stage. They develop leadership qualities, self-reliance, independence and social
responsibilities
10. • Young adulthood: (20-40 years)
• The major development tasks are choosing a mate, establishing a home
and accepting the responsibility of parent. Children cannot be effectively
nurtured unless family has a reasonable degree of security.
• Middle adulthood (40-65 years)
• Changes that occur during adulthood have given rise to various
expressions such as middle age, mid-career crisis, middle age slump,
referring to recognition of losing youth and coming to old age.
• The conflict within this period is between generativity and stagnation.
We begin to look at what we have generated—products and ideas, the
legacy we leave to future generations. When generativity is weak and
not given expression, the personality regresses or stagnates.
11. Late adulthood (From 60 years)
• Physical changes: The strength and ability declines, sensory capacity decreases.
The intellectual skills stay on more or less stable.
• Intellectual skills: Their memory, learning skills and performance ability are less
adequate. Their creativity and thinking also become less adequate.
• This period is characterized by integrity/despair. Integrity is the acceptance of
one’s life cycle. Despair expresses the feeling that what has been done is not of
much value and left to do many things
• While looking back if one feels that his life was successful, and then he has
integrity, otherwise despair. At this stage it is necessary to adjust to the reduced
income and deteriorating health. Frequently friends or husband/wives die
leading to loneliness.
12.
13. Psychology of vulnerable individuals.
• The term vulnerability refers to capability of being physically or
emotionally wounded.
• Mental or psychological disorders can arise in any age group, in any
kind of people.
• People are generally affected by psychological disorders fall under
class of vulnerable groups.
• The major group of people falling in this class are as follows:
• Physically challenged person.
• Sick individuals.
• Women
14. Physically challenged people
• The Physically handicaps maybe congenital or acquired due to illness or injury.
• The emotional and psychological problems maybe of varying degrees.
• The mild reactions often go unrecognized and whenever they are recognized they are not
very well understood, taken for granted and no effort is made to correct.
• Common Psychological reactions:
• Negative emotion reactions- Shame, guilt, fear etc.,
• Personality traits like shyness, aloofness, Psychosis, Aggressive behaviour pattern,
Antisocial and Anxious.
• Psychiatric illness and syndromes like paranoid stress, sensory deprivation, suicidal
tendencies, phantom limb, substance abuse disorders, personality disorders, stress-
related syndromes.
15. Sick Individuals
• Physical illness causing varying degrees of stress on the child and family and on each
every individual related to sickness. It often affects adversely the individual growth and
psychosocial adaptation.
• Factors influencing individual’s reaction to illness:
• Immediate and direct effects: Pain, discomfort, decreased appetite, insomnia,
limitation of physical activities.
• Chronic effects: Withdrawal, regression, depression learning, maladaptive
behaviour, threats to self-image and self-concept.
• Emotional reaction to hospitalisation: Adverse emotions can complicate the course of
recovery from illness, reduce the effectiveness of treatment. There aare four kinds of
emotions of distress seen during hospitalisation:
• Anxiety/fear.
• Depression.
• Irritability/ anger and hostility.
• Dependence/ Submissiveness.
16. Women
• In most societies, Psychiatric disorders are more common women. The
suggested difference includes genetic differences, societal pressure on
women, difference rearing patterns and cultural expectations.
• The disorder most commonly reported in women are:
• Major depression, Anxiety state, Adjustment problems, Anorexia nervosa.
• During pregnancy: ‘Baby blues’, Postpartum depression, Delivery-related
anxiety, Trauma obsessive compulsive disorders, Postpartum psychosis.
• Menopausal symptoms: Irritability, Excessive worry, Anxiety, Diminished
energy, Loss of memory, Problems in concentrating.
• Battered wife syndrome: Fear, Perceived inability to escape.
17. Psychology of Groups
• The branch of Psychology that deals with behaviour of groups and
influence of social factors of individual.
• It has been established that there are differences in behaviour of
individuals when they are alone and when they are together with
other individual.
• As a member of group, he exhibits group behaviour, which is not the
mere sum-total of behaviour of individual who constitute the group.
• Therefore, it should be understood that behaviour of individual in a
group rests on a different Psychic level. So, the Psychology of group
should be considerably different from Psychology of Individual.
18. Characteristics of Basic types of Groups
S.No Type of
group
Characteristics Examples
01 Intimacy
group
Small group of moderate duration and
permeability characterised by levels of
interaction among members, who value
membership in the group
Families, Romantic couples,
close friends, street gangs.
02 Task groups Work groups in employment settings and goal-
focused groups in a variety of non-employment
situations
Teams, Neighbourhood
associations.
03 Weak
associations
Aggregations of Individuals that form
spontaneously, last only a brief period of time,
and have very permeable boundaries.
Crowds, Audiences, Cluster of
bystanders.
04 Social
categories
Aggregation of individuals who are similar to
one another in terms of gender, ethnic, religion
or nationality
Women, Asian American,
Physicians, New Yorkers etc.,