10 Lecture Ppt
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The document summarizes key concepts about DNA and genetics, including: 1) DNA was identified as the genetic material through experiments showing it could be transferred between bacteria to cause heritable changes. 2) DNA and RNA are polymers composed of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, phosphate groups, and a pentose sugar. 3) DNA replication is semiconservative and involves unwinding the DNA double helix, adding complementary nucleotides, and rejoining to form two new DNA molecules. 4) Genes specify the sequence of amino acids in proteins through transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins with the help of tRNA and ribosomes.
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Overview of transcription
Overview of transcriptionMarudhar Kesari Jain College for Women Vaniyambadi - 635 751, Tamil Nadu, INDIA.
Transcription - prokaryotic & Eukaryotic, transcription regulatory elements, inhibitors of TranscriptionTranslation of dna
Translation is the process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using messenger RNA (mRNA) as instructions. It occurs in the cytoplasm and involves transfer RNA (tRNA) carrying amino acids to the ribosome based on mRNA codons. The main steps are initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves a start codon binding to tRNA and methionine. Elongation adds amino acids through peptide bonds between tRNA molecules. Termination releases the full protein when a stop codon is reached. The ribosome, tRNA, mRNA, and ATP provide the tools for translation to convert genetic code into functional proteins.
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Gene expression involves two main steps - transcription and translation. During transcription, DNA is copied into mRNA with the help of RNA polymerase. Translation then uses the mRNA to assemble amino acids into proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA. Though genes code for traits, there is not a simple one-to-one relationship due to various regulatory factors.
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DNA structure
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Overview of transcription
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Transcription - prokaryotic & Eukaryotic, transcription regulatory elements, inhibitors of TranscriptionTranslation of dna
Translation is the process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using messenger RNA (mRNA) as instructions. It occurs in the cytoplasm and involves transfer RNA (tRNA) carrying amino acids to the ribosome based on mRNA codons. The main steps are initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves a start codon binding to tRNA and methionine. Elongation adds amino acids through peptide bonds between tRNA molecules. Termination releases the full protein when a stop codon is reached. The ribosome, tRNA, mRNA, and ATP provide the tools for translation to convert genetic code into functional proteins.
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Posttranslational modifications and regulation of gene expression are discussed. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, then transport of mRNA to the cytoplasm where translation occurs on ribosomes. The genetic code is explained where codons consisting of three nucleotides specify each of the 20 amino acids. Mutations can occur that result in changes to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
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1) Gene expression in eukaryotes is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, epigenetic modifications to DNA and histones, alternative splicing of mRNA, and microRNAs inhibiting translation.
2) Transcription is regulated through the binding of transcription factors to enhancer and silencer regions near gene promoters. DNA methylation and histone modifications can alter chromatin structure and gene activity.
3) Alternative splicing of pre-mRNA and the actions of microRNAs introduce additional regulatory mechanisms by generating different protein isoforms from a single gene or inhibiting specific mRNAs post-transcriptionally.
Gene regulation
Gene regulation is the process by which genes are turned on and off, ensuring that the appropriate genes are expressed at the proper times. It involves two main stages: transcription, where RNA polymerase produces messenger RNA from DNA; and translation, where the mRNA directs protein synthesis. Key gene control regions include promoters near the start of genes, which help control transcription, and enhancers or silencers that increase or decrease transcription by binding transcription factors. Gene regulation can be positive, through activator proteins initiating transcription, or negative, via repressor proteins terminating transcription. This process is necessary for unicellular organisms to adapt to their environment and for multicellular organisms to differentiate cells and perform specialized functions.
Dna relication in eukaryotes
Eukaryotic DNA replication is a conserved mechanism that restricts DNA replication to once per cell cycle. Eukaryotic DNA replication of chromosomal DNA is central for the duplication of a cell and is necessary for the maintenance of the eukaryotic genome.
DNA replication in eukaryotes occurs in three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination, which are aided by several enzymes. Because eukaryotic genomes are quite
complex, DNA replication is a very complicated process that involves several enzymes and other proteins. It occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Dna replication
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Transcription
Transcription, Promoter, Promoter Structure, RNA polymerase, Sigma factor, Steps of transcription, Trasncriptional Initiation, Transcription Elongation, Transcriptional Termination, Mechanisms of termination, Rho dependent termination , Rho indepenent termination, Transcription in prokaryotes, Transcription in Eukaryotes.
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Eukaryotic translation pathway
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Dnareplication
This document discusses several key aspects of DNA structure and function:
1) Chromosomes contain DNA, histone proteins, and some RNA. DNA contains a code made up of four nucleotide bases that determines the sequence of amino acids in proteins.
2) DNA replicates semi-conservatively, with each parent strand serving as a template to produce two new DNA double helices.
3) Replication requires DNA polymerase, nucleotides, and energy and proceeds through initiation, elongation, and termination steps at the replication fork.
Transcription
The flow of information in the cell starts at DNA, which replicates to form more DNA. Information is then ‘transcribed” into RNA, and then it is “translated” into protein.
Information does not flow in the other direction.
A few exceptions to the Central Dogma exist
some RNA viruses, called “retroviruses”.
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Topics covered are:
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2. Wobble hypothesis
3. Stages (Initiation, Elongation and Termination) of translation in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes with enzymes and their functions
4. Post-translation modification such as Glycosylation, Lipidation, Phosphorylation, Acetylation, Methylation (lysine and arginine methylation) and Ubiquitination
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DNA insertion
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1) Gene expression in eukaryotes is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, epigenetic modifications to DNA and histones, alternative splicing of mRNA, and microRNAs inhibiting translation.
2) Transcription is regulated through the binding of transcription factors to enhancer and silencer regions near gene promoters. DNA methylation and histone modifications can alter chromatin structure and gene activity.
3) Alternative splicing of pre-mRNA and the actions of microRNAs introduce additional regulatory mechanisms by generating different protein isoforms from a single gene or inhibiting specific mRNAs post-transcriptionally.
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Gene regulation is the process by which genes are turned on and off, ensuring that the appropriate genes are expressed at the proper times. It involves two main stages: transcription, where RNA polymerase produces messenger RNA from DNA; and translation, where the mRNA directs protein synthesis. Key gene control regions include promoters near the start of genes, which help control transcription, and enhancers or silencers that increase or decrease transcription by binding transcription factors. Gene regulation can be positive, through activator proteins initiating transcription, or negative, via repressor proteins terminating transcription. This process is necessary for unicellular organisms to adapt to their environment and for multicellular organisms to differentiate cells and perform specialized functions.
Dna relication in eukaryotes
Eukaryotic DNA replication is a conserved mechanism that restricts DNA replication to once per cell cycle. Eukaryotic DNA replication of chromosomal DNA is central for the duplication of a cell and is necessary for the maintenance of the eukaryotic genome.
DNA replication in eukaryotes occurs in three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination, which are aided by several enzymes. Because eukaryotic genomes are quite
complex, DNA replication is a very complicated process that involves several enzymes and other proteins. It occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
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DNA replication occurs through initiation, elongation, and termination steps. Initiation begins at the origin of replication where enzymes separate the DNA strands. Elongation builds the new strands through leading and lagging strand synthesis. The leading strand adds nucleotides continuously towards the unwinding while the lagging strand adds fragments called Okazaki fragments. Termination occurs when termination proteins bind to termination sites and stop the polymerase.
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genetics is a study of heredity, by studying microbial genetics, which is the most basic, one can extrapolate it to complex genetic studies of complex biological systems. effect of mutagens on genes is eye opening
Transcription
Transcription, Promoter, Promoter Structure, RNA polymerase, Sigma factor, Steps of transcription, Trasncriptional Initiation, Transcription Elongation, Transcriptional Termination, Mechanisms of termination, Rho dependent termination , Rho indepenent termination, Transcription in prokaryotes, Transcription in Eukaryotes.
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Translation is the process by which the nucleotide sequence of mRNA is used as a template to synthesize a polypeptide according to the genetic code. It involves three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation requires numerous initiation factors and begins with formation of the initiation complex containing the small ribosomal subunit, initiator tRNA, and mRNA. Elongation cycles then add amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain through binding of aminoacyl-tRNAs according to the mRNA codon sequence. Termination occurs when a stop codon is recognized, leading to peptide release and ribosome dissociation.
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This document discusses several key aspects of DNA structure and function:
1) Chromosomes contain DNA, histone proteins, and some RNA. DNA contains a code made up of four nucleotide bases that determines the sequence of amino acids in proteins.
2) DNA replicates semi-conservatively, with each parent strand serving as a template to produce two new DNA double helices.
3) Replication requires DNA polymerase, nucleotides, and energy and proceeds through initiation, elongation, and termination steps at the replication fork.
Transcription
The flow of information in the cell starts at DNA, which replicates to form more DNA. Information is then ‘transcribed” into RNA, and then it is “translated” into protein.
Information does not flow in the other direction.
A few exceptions to the Central Dogma exist
some RNA viruses, called “retroviruses”.
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The process by which DNA molecule makes its identical copies is known as DNA replication or DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule
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The document summarizes the major organs of the immune system. It describes the primary lymphoid organs as the bone marrow and thymus, where lymphoid stem cells mature into T and B cells. The secondary lymphoid organs, including lymph nodes, spleen, and MALT tissues, allow interaction between immune cells and antigens. Specifically, the thymus matures T cells while the bone marrow produces B cells. Lymph nodes filter lymph and activate immune cells. The spleen removes old blood cells and supports immune responses.
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Topics covered are:
1. History and Characteristics of Genetic codes
2. Wobble hypothesis
3. Stages (Initiation, Elongation and Termination) of translation in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes with enzymes and their functions
4. Post-translation modification such as Glycosylation, Lipidation, Phosphorylation, Acetylation, Methylation (lysine and arginine methylation) and Ubiquitination
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This presentation is meant for MBBS, MD and BDS students. It includes DNA replication and fate of DNA and its regulation and clinical significance.
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The document summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology, which is the process by which genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. It first defines DNA, genes, and the central dogma. It then explains the key processes involved - DNA replication, transcription, translation, DNA methylation, pseudogenes, and post-transcriptional modification of RNA through 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and alternative splicing. The central dogma provides the framework for how genetic information in DNA is used to direct protein synthesis and expression of genes.
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- Genes contain the code for proteins and a change in the gene results in a change to the protein's amino acid sequence.
- Transcription involves copying a gene's DNA sequence into a complementary mRNA sequence. Translation then converts the mRNA sequence into the amino acid sequence of a protein.
- The genetic code specifies which three-letter codon in mRNA corresponds to each amino acid. Translation uses this code to build proteins from mRNA instructions.
Ch 10 Notes for website
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections. It discusses several important scientific discoveries: Griffith's experiment showing transformation of bacteria, Hershey and Chase's experiment demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material of viruses, and Watson and Crick's discovery of the double helix structure of DNA. It also describes DNA and RNA as polymers of nucleotides, DNA replication through semiconservative replication and specific base pairing, transcription producing mRNA from DNA templates, translation of mRNA into proteins according to codons, and processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA through splicing of introns.
Dna synthesis and protein synthesis
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and provide instructions for building proteins. There are two main types: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the genetic blueprint in the form of a double-stranded structure located in the cell's nucleus. RNA is single-stranded and involved in protein synthesis. The central dogma of molecular biology describes how DNA is transcribed into RNA then translated into proteins. DNA replication is the process where DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division which involves unwinding of the DNA double helix, addition of nucleotides to form new strands, and production of two identical DNA molecules.
Chapter 8 Microbial GeneticsPlasm
This document summarizes key concepts in microbial genetics including:
1) Plasmids exist separately from bacterial chromosomes and can transfer genes horizontally.
2) The central dogma of molecular biology describes how DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into protein.
3) Bacterial gene expression is regulated through operons such as the lac and tryptophan operons which are induced or repressed in response to environmental conditions.
4) Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by mutagens and can alter bacterial genes and phenotypes.
From dna to protein genotype to phenotype
The document discusses several key concepts in molecular biology:
1) Beadle and Tatum's experiments with Neurospora led to the one-gene, one-polypeptide hypothesis, which states that each gene directs the synthesis of a specific polypeptide.
2) DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein. Retroviruses reverse this process by transcribing RNA back into DNA.
3) The genetic code consists of triplets of nucleotides (codons) that specify which amino acid will be added during translation. There are 64 possible codons but only 20 different amino acids, so the genetic code is redundant.
4) Mutations in DNA
Dna replication transcription and translation
DNA is made up of nucleotides containing nitrogen bases, sugars and phosphates. The bases on two DNA strands bond together through complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine, and cytosine and guanine. DNA replicates semi-conservatively through initiation, elongation, and termination steps. RNA carries instructions from DNA for protein production. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making mRNA from DNA. Translation uses mRNA, tRNAs, and ribosomes to assemble amino acids into proteins according to the genetic code of three-base codons. Mutations in DNA can alter codons and cause changes in protein sequences.
Dna replication recombination
DNA was discovered in 1868 and carries genetic traits. It is a double-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides that code for inherited characteristics. DNA replication is the process where DNA copies itself during cell division. It occurs in three main steps - initiation, elongation, and proofreading. DNA recombination and mutation can result in changes to the DNA sequence, altering traits or introducing variation. Recombinant DNA techniques cut and join DNA from different sources to produce modified sequences.
Biology - Chp 12 - DNA & RNA - PowerPoint
The document summarizes key concepts about DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It discusses:
1) The structure of DNA as a double helix with nucleotides containing nitrogen bases that allow the strands to replicate.
2) Chromosomes contain DNA and package it tightly for storage in eukaryotic cells. DNA replication results in two DNA molecules each with one original and one new strand.
3) RNA acts as a messenger to transfer DNA instructions to the cell. Transcription and translation lead to protein synthesis on ribosomes according to the genetic code.
4) Mutations can occur through changes to nucleotides and can impact protein function, though most do not affect the organism.
Cumulative review dna rna-protein synthesis-mutations
The document summarizes the structure and function of DNA. It discusses how DNA stores and transmits genetic information through its nucleotide sequence, and how this controls protein production and ultimately an organism's traits. It also describes different types of mutations that can occur in DNA, including point mutations, frameshift mutations, and chromosomal rearrangements, and how these can influence cells and organisms.
5 DNA RNA Protein Synthesis
The document discusses DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It describes key discoveries such as the Hershey-Chase experiment demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material. It explains the structure of DNA as a double helix with base pairing between strands. The process of DNA replication is summarized, including semi-conservative replication and the role of enzymes. Transcription of DNA to RNA and translation of RNA to protein are also summarized, with an overview of the central dogma of molecular biology.
Feb18lecture Post Key
The document provides an overview of microbial genetics and DNA manipulation techniques. It discusses [1] the central dogma of biology where DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, [2] DNA structure including replication, transcription and translation, and [3] common genetic engineering techniques like using restriction enzymes to cut DNA and recombining DNA fragments into plasmids.
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8 DNA RNA Protein What i.pdf
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8: DNA RNA Protein What is DNA? a
phosphate Structure of DNA: Building blocks are called nucleotides Each nucleotide is
composed of three br uithofenas bee. What makes DNA so special? Provide 4 reasons, below
DNA DNA (Replication): Where does DNA replication take place? When does DNA replication
take place? Explain steps involved in DNA replication: DNA RNA Protein (Gene Expression)
Involves 2 processes: 1. Transcription 2. Translation Explain the Synthesis of Proteins (Gene
Expression): o DNA RNA Protein What is RNA? What is \"codon What is \"anticodon\" What is
a protein molecule? DNA mutation; Change in nucleotide bases of DNA Duplex Point mutation
Frame shift mutation
Solution
Question
Answer
Where does DNA replication take place:
It takes place in the nucleus in case of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm in case of
prokaryotic cells
When does DNA replication take place:
DNA replication occurs during the S-phase during cell cycle, so that cell can make an extra copy
of genetic material.
Explain steps involved in DNA replication:
Initiation: During initiation, the proteins will bind to the origin of replication; helicase unwinds
the DNA helix which results in the formation of two replication forks.
Elongation: A RNA primer sequence will be added to this the DNA pol III will add the
nucleotides in 5’ to 3’ direction and chain will elongate.
Termination: In case of bacteria, termination of replication occurs whenever two replication
forks meet each other from the opposite end of the parental chromosome.
Transcription
Gene expression first step is transcription, here a particular segment of DNA will be copied into
RNA with the help of the enzyme RNA polymerase
Translation
Translation is the final step of the gene expression. Here mRNA will be used to synthesize the
polypeptide chain. The information present in the mRNA in the form of codon will code for the
amino acids needed for polypeptide chain synthesis.
What is RNA?
RNA is ribonucleic acid and is found in all living cells. It acts as the messenger carrying
instructions from DNA for the synthesis of proteins.
Few viruses will have RNA as their genetic material.
What is codon?
Codon is a sequence of three nucleotides and they together form a unit of genetic code in either
DNA or RNA.
What is anticodon?
It is found on tRNA and it is a sequence of three nucleotides which forms a genetic code on
tRNA, and these anticodon is complementary to the codons found on messenger RNA.
What is a protein molecule?
During translation, when amino acids are added in a sequential manner, the condensation of
amino acids will form a peptide bond in between them and finally forms a polypeptide chain. It
is the DNA through mRNA directs the protein synthesis.
Point mutation
In point mutation, only one or very few nucleotides will be affected or mutated in a gene
sequence.
Frame shift mutation
Either insertions or deletion can result in frame shift mutation, due to th.
10 lecture presentation0
This document discusses DNA structure and replication. It begins by describing DNA as a chemical that stores genetic information and can be copied from one generation to the next. DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides consisting of a nitrogenous base, sugar, and phosphate. Watson and Crick discovered that DNA has a double helix structure, where the bases on each strand pair in a complementary fashion. DNA replicates via a semi-conservative mechanism using DNA polymerases. The genetic information in DNA is expressed through transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins.
Chromosome structure
1. Viral genomes contain DNA or RNA and are packaged into capsids through assembly processes. Bacterial chromosomes contain genes and other sequences compacted by looping and supercoiling.
2. Eukaryotic chromosomes vary greatly in size and contain genes and other sequences. Their DNA must be highly compacted to fit in the nucleus.
3. Eukaryotic DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form chromatin fibers and loop domains anchored to the nuclear matrix. Additional compaction occurs during cell division through condensin and cohesin proteins.
Sadeeqsheshe the central dogma of molecular biology
The document describes the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that DNA is replicated, then transcribed into RNA, and RNA is translated into protein. It provides details on DNA replication, transcription, and translation. DNA replication involves DNA polymerase copying DNA in the 5'-3' direction. Transcription involves RNA polymerase transcribing DNA into RNA. Translation occurs on ribosomes and involves mRNA being read in triplets to produce a polypeptide chain. The processes are generally conserved between prokaryotes and eukaryotes but have structural and mechanistic differences.
The Central Dogma.pptx
The document describes several key concepts in molecular biology:
1) The central dogma of gene expression describes how DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein. In bacteria this occurs in the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotes transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation in the cytosol.
2) DNA replication is necessary for cell division and involves unwinding of the DNA double helix and synthesis of new strands according to the AT/GC base pairing rule, with the involvement of enzymes like DNA polymerase and helicase.
3) Transcription involves RNA polymerase using a DNA template to make RNA, and in eukaryotes the pre-mRNA undergoes splicing and capping/polyadenylation
G10 q3 w3_heredity-inheritance-and-variation-1_removed
This document provides learning materials on heredity and genetics for a 10th grade science class. It includes activities and questions to help students understand how protein is made from DNA information, and how mutations can cause changes in protein structure and function. The first activity involves building a DNA model to demonstrate replication. The second has students labeling DNA and RNA components in a comparison table. The third analyzes gene sequences to identify mutations. The document explains the central dogma of biology and how DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into protein. It also describes different types of genetic mutations and their effects.
Proteins
The document discusses how genetic information flows from DNA to proteins. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA through transcription, and mRNA is then translated into proteins through translation. During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a complementary mRNA copy of the DNA gene. During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules matching the mRNA codons bring amino acids to the ribosome, where they are linked together to form a protein chain according to the mRNA's genetic code. The protein then undergoes post-translational modifications before performing its function in the cell. Mutations can occur through changes in DNA bases that may alter protein sequences.
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology-for LIVE Teaching.pptx
This document provides information about protein synthesis and the central dogma of molecular biology. It discusses how DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins. The three main stages of transcription and translation are described. The roles of RNA polymerase, ribosomes, and transfer RNA are outlined. A genetic code table shows how mRNA codons correspond to different amino acids. The document seeks to help students understand how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
Presentation
This document provides information about molecular biology concepts including DNA, RNA, transcription, translation, and protein synthesis. It begins with definitions of DNA and nucleic acids, then describes DNA replication through several figures showing the replication fork and involved proteins. It discusses DNA repair and transcription, including RNA polymerase and start/stop signals. Finally, it covers translation from RNA to protein through tRNA, the genetic code, and ribosome functions in initiation, elongation and termination of protein synthesis. The document thus provides an overview of the central dogma of molecular biology from DNA to mRNA to protein.
Similar to 10 Lecture Ppt (20)
Cumulative review dna rna-protein synthesis-mutations
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Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8 DNA RNA Protein What i.pdf
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8 DNA RNA Protein What i.pdf
Sadeeqsheshe the central dogma of molecular biology
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10 Lecture Ppt
- 1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chapter 10 Molecular Biology of Inheritance
- 2. DNA Is the Genetic Material
- 5. Figure 10.2B Hershey and Chase experiment I
- 6. Figure 10.2C Hershey and Chase experiment II
- 8. Figure 10.3A DNA is a polynucleotide—contains many nucleotides
- 9. Figure 10.3B The four bases in DNA nucleotides
- 12. Figure 10.4 Complementary base pairing
- 14. Figure 10.5B The Watson and Crick model of DNA
- 15. DNA Can Be Duplicated
- 17. Figure 10.6 Semiconservative replication (simplified)
- 18. 10.7 Many different proteins help DNA replicate Figure 10.7 DNA replication (in depth)
- 19. Genes Specify the Makeup of Proteins
- 20. 10.8 Genes are linked to proteins Figure 10.8 Chemical basis of sickle-cell disease in humans
- 22. Figure 10.9 Overview of gene expression
- 24. Figure 10.10 RNA codons
- 26. Figure 10.11A Transcription: synthesis of RNA
- 27. Figure 10.11B mRNA transcripts extending from horizontal DNA
- 29. Figure 10.12 mRNA processing in eukaryotes
- 31. Figure 10.13A Cloverleaf model of tRNA
- 32. Figure 10.13B Space-filling model of tRNA molecule
- 34. Figure 10.14 Ribosome structure and function
- 37. 10.17 Let’s review gene expression
- 39. Mutations Are Changes in the Sequence of DNA Bases
- 41. Figure 10.18A Types of point mutations