This document summarizes key concepts in microbial genetics including:
1) Plasmids exist separately from bacterial chromosomes and can transfer genes horizontally.
2) The central dogma of molecular biology describes how DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into protein.
3) Bacterial gene expression is regulated through operons such as the lac and tryptophan operons which are induced or repressed in response to environmental conditions.
4) Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by mutagens and can alter bacterial genes and phenotypes.
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8 DNA RNA Protein What i.pdfmckenziecast21211
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8: DNA RNA Protein What is DNA? a
phosphate Structure of DNA: Building blocks are called nucleotides Each nucleotide is
composed of three br uithofenas bee. What makes DNA so special? Provide 4 reasons, below
DNA DNA (Replication): Where does DNA replication take place? When does DNA replication
take place? Explain steps involved in DNA replication: DNA RNA Protein (Gene Expression)
Involves 2 processes: 1. Transcription 2. Translation Explain the Synthesis of Proteins (Gene
Expression): o DNA RNA Protein What is RNA? What is \"codon What is \"anticodon\" What is
a protein molecule? DNA mutation; Change in nucleotide bases of DNA Duplex Point mutation
Frame shift mutation
Solution
Question
Answer
Where does DNA replication take place:
It takes place in the nucleus in case of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm in case of
prokaryotic cells
When does DNA replication take place:
DNA replication occurs during the S-phase during cell cycle, so that cell can make an extra copy
of genetic material.
Explain steps involved in DNA replication:
Initiation: During initiation, the proteins will bind to the origin of replication; helicase unwinds
the DNA helix which results in the formation of two replication forks.
Elongation: A RNA primer sequence will be added to this the DNA pol III will add the
nucleotides in 5’ to 3’ direction and chain will elongate.
Termination: In case of bacteria, termination of replication occurs whenever two replication
forks meet each other from the opposite end of the parental chromosome.
Transcription
Gene expression first step is transcription, here a particular segment of DNA will be copied into
RNA with the help of the enzyme RNA polymerase
Translation
Translation is the final step of the gene expression. Here mRNA will be used to synthesize the
polypeptide chain. The information present in the mRNA in the form of codon will code for the
amino acids needed for polypeptide chain synthesis.
What is RNA?
RNA is ribonucleic acid and is found in all living cells. It acts as the messenger carrying
instructions from DNA for the synthesis of proteins.
Few viruses will have RNA as their genetic material.
What is codon?
Codon is a sequence of three nucleotides and they together form a unit of genetic code in either
DNA or RNA.
What is anticodon?
It is found on tRNA and it is a sequence of three nucleotides which forms a genetic code on
tRNA, and these anticodon is complementary to the codons found on messenger RNA.
What is a protein molecule?
During translation, when amino acids are added in a sequential manner, the condensation of
amino acids will form a peptide bond in between them and finally forms a polypeptide chain. It
is the DNA through mRNA directs the protein synthesis.
Point mutation
In point mutation, only one or very few nucleotides will be affected or mutated in a gene
sequence.
Frame shift mutation
Either insertions or deletion can result in frame shift mutation, due to th.
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8 DNA RNA Protein What i.pdfmckenziecast21211
Brief Concepts and Questions EXAM 2 Chapter 8: DNA RNA Protein What is DNA? a
phosphate Structure of DNA: Building blocks are called nucleotides Each nucleotide is
composed of three br uithofenas bee. What makes DNA so special? Provide 4 reasons, below
DNA DNA (Replication): Where does DNA replication take place? When does DNA replication
take place? Explain steps involved in DNA replication: DNA RNA Protein (Gene Expression)
Involves 2 processes: 1. Transcription 2. Translation Explain the Synthesis of Proteins (Gene
Expression): o DNA RNA Protein What is RNA? What is \"codon What is \"anticodon\" What is
a protein molecule? DNA mutation; Change in nucleotide bases of DNA Duplex Point mutation
Frame shift mutation
Solution
Question
Answer
Where does DNA replication take place:
It takes place in the nucleus in case of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm in case of
prokaryotic cells
When does DNA replication take place:
DNA replication occurs during the S-phase during cell cycle, so that cell can make an extra copy
of genetic material.
Explain steps involved in DNA replication:
Initiation: During initiation, the proteins will bind to the origin of replication; helicase unwinds
the DNA helix which results in the formation of two replication forks.
Elongation: A RNA primer sequence will be added to this the DNA pol III will add the
nucleotides in 5’ to 3’ direction and chain will elongate.
Termination: In case of bacteria, termination of replication occurs whenever two replication
forks meet each other from the opposite end of the parental chromosome.
Transcription
Gene expression first step is transcription, here a particular segment of DNA will be copied into
RNA with the help of the enzyme RNA polymerase
Translation
Translation is the final step of the gene expression. Here mRNA will be used to synthesize the
polypeptide chain. The information present in the mRNA in the form of codon will code for the
amino acids needed for polypeptide chain synthesis.
What is RNA?
RNA is ribonucleic acid and is found in all living cells. It acts as the messenger carrying
instructions from DNA for the synthesis of proteins.
Few viruses will have RNA as their genetic material.
What is codon?
Codon is a sequence of three nucleotides and they together form a unit of genetic code in either
DNA or RNA.
What is anticodon?
It is found on tRNA and it is a sequence of three nucleotides which forms a genetic code on
tRNA, and these anticodon is complementary to the codons found on messenger RNA.
What is a protein molecule?
During translation, when amino acids are added in a sequential manner, the condensation of
amino acids will form a peptide bond in between them and finally forms a polypeptide chain. It
is the DNA through mRNA directs the protein synthesis.
Point mutation
In point mutation, only one or very few nucleotides will be affected or mutated in a gene
sequence.
Frame shift mutation
Either insertions or deletion can result in frame shift mutation, due to th.
Resources of DNA synthesis and Protein synthesis are here: I got them from youtube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BwWavExcFI
• Define transcription• Define translation• What are the 3 steps.pdfarihantelehyb
• Define transcription
• Define translation
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
• Define the “genetic dogma”
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
• What is the function of RNA polymerase?
• What is the function of DNA polymerase?
• Define “splicing of RNA”
• What is an exon?
• What component of the cell does the translation?
• What molecule in the cell does transcription?
• What are the functions of: operon, promotor?
• What is the difference between inducible operon and repressible operon?
Solution
• Define transcription
Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene sequence. This copy, called a
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it
directs the synthesis of the protein, which it encodes. Here is a more complete definition of
transcription.
• Define translation
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to
a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship
between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it
encodes. In the cell cytoplasm, the ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA in groups of three
bases to assemble the protein. Here is a more complete definition of translation:
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
Step # 1. Initiation:
Initiation of translation in E .coli involves the small ribosome subunit, a mRNA molecule, a
specific charge initiator tRNA, GTP, Mg++ and number of proteinaceous initiation factors (IFs).
These are initially part of the small subunit and are required to enhance binding affinity of the
various translational components (Table 8.1). Unlike ribosomal proteins, IFs are released from
the ribosome once initiation is completed.
Step # 2. Elongation:
Once both subunits of the ribosome are assembled with the mRNA, binding site for two charged
tRNA molecules are formed. These are designated as the ‘P’ or peptidyl and the ‘A’ or
aminoacyl sites. The charged initiator tRNA binds to the P site, provided that the AUG triplet of
mRNA is in the corresponding position of the small subunit. The increase of the growing
polypeptide chain by one amino acid is called elongation.
Step # 3. Termination:
Termination of protein synthesis is carried out by triplet codes (UAG, UAA, UGA; stop codons)
present at site A. These codons do not specify an amino acid, nor do they call for a tRNA in the
A site. These codons are called stop codons, termination codons or nonsense codons. The
finished polypeptide is still attached to the terminal tRNA at the P site, and the A site is empty.
• Define the “genetic dogma”
A theory in genetics and molecular biology subject to several exceptions that genetic information
is coded in self-replicating DNA and undergoes unidirectional transfer to messenger RNAs in
transcription which act as templates for protein synthesis in translation
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
The tRNA molecule, or tr.
Provide an in depth description of biological information transfer (.pdfMALASADHNANI
Provide an in depth description of biological information transfer (what is the chemistry
underlying each information transfer event, which nucleotide sequences are involved etc.)
Solution
The genetic information is stored in Deoxyribonucleic acid,DNA. DNA contains the information
needed to build an individual. Genetic information is transferred from DNA and converted to
protein.RNA molecules work as messengers.Proteins are the biological workers.Information of
the DNA is copied to a RNA molecule in transcription.RNA directs the protein synthesis in a
translation.Protein’s 3D structure determines it’s function.Information transfer only in one
direction.
The biological information flows from DNA to RNA,and from there to proteins.It is ultimately
the DNA that controls every function of the cell through protein synthesis.As a carrier of genetic
information,DNA in a cell must be duplicated (replicated),maintained and passed dawn
accurately to the daughter cells.
DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid,which is found in chromosomes, contains inherited
information,they are made up of nucleotides,and are what make up genes. A nucleotide is
composed of a sugar (deoxyribose),a phosphate group,and a base.There are 4 bases found in
DNA, Adenine (A),Thymine (T),Guanine (G),and Cytosine (C).Adenine and guanine are double
ring bases while thymine and cytosine are single ring bases.Nucleotides are joined to each other
by covalent bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3\' carbon atom of the
deoxyribose (sugar) of the next nucleotide.Each DNA molecule is unique because the order of
nucleotides is unique. The order of nucleotides determines the order of amino acids in a
protein.RNA is a nucleic acid composed of nucleotides and consists of one strand of
nucleotides.There are three different types of RNA- Ribosomal,Messenger,and
Transfer.Ribosomal RNA is the RNA molecules found in ribosomes. The large subunit RNA
contains the enzymatic activity that makes the peptide bonds between amino acids. Messenger
RNA is what controls the order of amino acids in a protein and determines which gene it codes
for.Transfer RNA brings amino acids to ribosomes.The transfer RNA has two recognition sites-
one recognizes an amino acid and the other recognizes one codon.The transfer RNA brings the
the correct amino acid to the ribosome.
Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is replicated
in the form of a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA).Enzymes facilitating the
process include RNA polymerase and transcription factors.In eukaryotic cells the primary
transcript is pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be processed for translation to proceed.Processing
includes the addition of a 5\' cap and a poly-A tail to the pre-mRNA chain,followed by
splicing.Alternative splicing occurs when appropriate, increasing the diversity of the proteins
that any single mRNA can produce.The product of the entire transcription process is a mature
mRNA ch.
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(your resea.docxJinElias52
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(
your research does a very good job of explaining the topic and the changes in FASB. How did you plan to incorporate your reading from the Daniels, Radebaugh, and Sullivan text?
Daniels, J., Radebaugh, L., and Sullivan, D. (2015). International Business: Environments and Operations 15e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 13:978-0-13-345723-0.
i want only answer this question
.
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentativepersuasive rese.docxJinElias52
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentative/persuasive research paper given one of the following option:
Argue for or against a business decision, organizational plan, business philosophy, policy decision, or concept related to the class. On Corporate Social Responsibility
.
Resources of DNA synthesis and Protein synthesis are here: I got them from youtube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BwWavExcFI
• Define transcription• Define translation• What are the 3 steps.pdfarihantelehyb
• Define transcription
• Define translation
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
• Define the “genetic dogma”
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
• What is the function of RNA polymerase?
• What is the function of DNA polymerase?
• Define “splicing of RNA”
• What is an exon?
• What component of the cell does the translation?
• What molecule in the cell does transcription?
• What are the functions of: operon, promotor?
• What is the difference between inducible operon and repressible operon?
Solution
• Define transcription
Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene sequence. This copy, called a
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it
directs the synthesis of the protein, which it encodes. Here is a more complete definition of
transcription.
• Define translation
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to
a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship
between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it
encodes. In the cell cytoplasm, the ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA in groups of three
bases to assemble the protein. Here is a more complete definition of translation:
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
Step # 1. Initiation:
Initiation of translation in E .coli involves the small ribosome subunit, a mRNA molecule, a
specific charge initiator tRNA, GTP, Mg++ and number of proteinaceous initiation factors (IFs).
These are initially part of the small subunit and are required to enhance binding affinity of the
various translational components (Table 8.1). Unlike ribosomal proteins, IFs are released from
the ribosome once initiation is completed.
Step # 2. Elongation:
Once both subunits of the ribosome are assembled with the mRNA, binding site for two charged
tRNA molecules are formed. These are designated as the ‘P’ or peptidyl and the ‘A’ or
aminoacyl sites. The charged initiator tRNA binds to the P site, provided that the AUG triplet of
mRNA is in the corresponding position of the small subunit. The increase of the growing
polypeptide chain by one amino acid is called elongation.
Step # 3. Termination:
Termination of protein synthesis is carried out by triplet codes (UAG, UAA, UGA; stop codons)
present at site A. These codons do not specify an amino acid, nor do they call for a tRNA in the
A site. These codons are called stop codons, termination codons or nonsense codons. The
finished polypeptide is still attached to the terminal tRNA at the P site, and the A site is empty.
• Define the “genetic dogma”
A theory in genetics and molecular biology subject to several exceptions that genetic information
is coded in self-replicating DNA and undergoes unidirectional transfer to messenger RNAs in
transcription which act as templates for protein synthesis in translation
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
The tRNA molecule, or tr.
Provide an in depth description of biological information transfer (.pdfMALASADHNANI
Provide an in depth description of biological information transfer (what is the chemistry
underlying each information transfer event, which nucleotide sequences are involved etc.)
Solution
The genetic information is stored in Deoxyribonucleic acid,DNA. DNA contains the information
needed to build an individual. Genetic information is transferred from DNA and converted to
protein.RNA molecules work as messengers.Proteins are the biological workers.Information of
the DNA is copied to a RNA molecule in transcription.RNA directs the protein synthesis in a
translation.Protein’s 3D structure determines it’s function.Information transfer only in one
direction.
The biological information flows from DNA to RNA,and from there to proteins.It is ultimately
the DNA that controls every function of the cell through protein synthesis.As a carrier of genetic
information,DNA in a cell must be duplicated (replicated),maintained and passed dawn
accurately to the daughter cells.
DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid,which is found in chromosomes, contains inherited
information,they are made up of nucleotides,and are what make up genes. A nucleotide is
composed of a sugar (deoxyribose),a phosphate group,and a base.There are 4 bases found in
DNA, Adenine (A),Thymine (T),Guanine (G),and Cytosine (C).Adenine and guanine are double
ring bases while thymine and cytosine are single ring bases.Nucleotides are joined to each other
by covalent bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3\' carbon atom of the
deoxyribose (sugar) of the next nucleotide.Each DNA molecule is unique because the order of
nucleotides is unique. The order of nucleotides determines the order of amino acids in a
protein.RNA is a nucleic acid composed of nucleotides and consists of one strand of
nucleotides.There are three different types of RNA- Ribosomal,Messenger,and
Transfer.Ribosomal RNA is the RNA molecules found in ribosomes. The large subunit RNA
contains the enzymatic activity that makes the peptide bonds between amino acids. Messenger
RNA is what controls the order of amino acids in a protein and determines which gene it codes
for.Transfer RNA brings amino acids to ribosomes.The transfer RNA has two recognition sites-
one recognizes an amino acid and the other recognizes one codon.The transfer RNA brings the
the correct amino acid to the ribosome.
Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is replicated
in the form of a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA).Enzymes facilitating the
process include RNA polymerase and transcription factors.In eukaryotic cells the primary
transcript is pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be processed for translation to proceed.Processing
includes the addition of a 5\' cap and a poly-A tail to the pre-mRNA chain,followed by
splicing.Alternative splicing occurs when appropriate, increasing the diversity of the proteins
that any single mRNA can produce.The product of the entire transcription process is a mature
mRNA ch.
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(your resea.docxJinElias52
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(
your research does a very good job of explaining the topic and the changes in FASB. How did you plan to incorporate your reading from the Daniels, Radebaugh, and Sullivan text?
Daniels, J., Radebaugh, L., and Sullivan, D. (2015). International Business: Environments and Operations 15e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 13:978-0-13-345723-0.
i want only answer this question
.
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentativepersuasive rese.docxJinElias52
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentative/persuasive research paper given one of the following option:
Argue for or against a business decision, organizational plan, business philosophy, policy decision, or concept related to the class. On Corporate Social Responsibility
.
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe Please respond to th.docxJinElias52
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe"
Please respond to the following,
using sources under the Explore heading as the basis of your response
:
Describe the functions of ancient myths, using examples from two (2) different neolithic cultures, and comment on whether myth is inherently fictional. Using modern examples, discuss ways modern belief systems, secular or religious, function for modern cultures in a similar fashion.
Explore
Neolithic societies and myths
Chapter 1 (pp. 6-8. 18-23, 29), myths in prehistory and early cultures
Ancient myths in regions around the globe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/worldmap_new.html
and
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/
.
.
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the GlobePlease respond to .docxJinElias52
"Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe"
Please respond to the following,
using sources under the Explore heading as the basis of your response
:
Describe the functions of ancient myths, using examples from two (2) different neolithic cultures, and comment on whether myth is inherently fictional. Using modern examples, discuss ways modern belief systems, secular or religious, function for modern cultures in a similar fashion.
Explore
Neolithic societies and myths
Ancient myths in regions around the globe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/worldmap_new.html
and
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/
.
.
Mycobacterium tuberculosisYou must review the contents of your n.docxJinElias52
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
You must review the contents of your news article and discuss what type of microorganism it is, if the organism is in nature or is used in industry or causes disease. If it causes disease you must discuss transmission, increasing incidence, factors contributing to the spread of the organism, lab culturing, etc.
300-400 words
.
My TopicI would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s.docxJinElias52
My Topic:
"I would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s fight with learning disability. I chose Helen Keller because she is one of the most important personality and the first person without hearing or sight to earn a BA. Her story is narrated in the movie “The Miracle Worker.”
For additional details, please refer to the Milestone Two Rubric document and the Final Project Document in the Assignment Guidelines and Rubrics section of the course.
.
My topic is the terms a Congress person serves and debate on adding .docxJinElias52
My topic is the terms a Congress person serves and debate on adding limitations to how long a person can be in Congress.
The Pros and Cons of the unlimited terms in congress
Do members of congress to support position people of the state they represent therefore should be able to change and if it will benefit.
How to Add limitations on the term served by congress
Follow the directions below for the completion of the Annotated Bibliography assignment for Unit II.
Purpose: The purpose of the annotated bibliography is to summarize the sources that you have gathered to support your research proposal project. These summaries help you to think about the complex arguments presented in your sources. Description: In this assignment, you will create an annotated bibliography consisting of seven sources. Each entry will consist of a reference list citation, a summary of the source’s information, and a one-sentence assessment. Each annotation should be between 150 to 200 words. If an entry is shorter than 150 words, it is likely you have not fully developed your summary, and this lack of development can severely impact your grade for this assignment.
.
My topic is anywhere, anytime information work, which means tele-wor.docxJinElias52
My topic is anywhere, anytime information work, which means tele-work, and we choose ( AT&T toggle)
I've done all the questions but i need more detail , deep answers .
1- write an introduction about ( anywhere, anytime information work) in details and conclusion about the company and application
2-write a brief explanation about the company it self ( AT&T)
3- plagiarism not accepted
4- use simple words
5- make it 12 or 11 pages
.
My topic for module-2 reaction paper was on news, data, and other me.docxJinElias52
My topic for module-2 reaction paper was on news, data, and other media means of delivering information to the public. When gathering all the information and reflecting on my personal experience when watching, reading or listening to the news outlets was very addicting. To see news clips from the wars past or deployments after the fact was real-time history for most of us (me), yet our families, friends and other members not physically at that location waiting to hear something can be very overwhelming. My question is the methods and absorbing of news
: Are citizens informed about terrorism and is it overwhelming?
.
My Topic for the paper I would like to do my case application on He.docxJinElias52
My Topic for the paper: I would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s fight with learning disability. I chose Helen Keller because she is one of the most important personality and the first person without hearing or sight to earn a BA. Her story is narrated in the movie “The Miracle Worker.”
.
n a 2 page paper, written in APA format using proper spellinggramma.docxJinElias52
n a 2 page paper, written in APA format using proper spelling/grammar, address the following:
Briefly explain Piaget's and Erikson's theories of development. Who had a better theory of human development: Erikson or Piaget? Please offer detail to explain your choice.
What tips would you give to someone who has just suffered a major loss, now that you know the stages of grief?
.
My research proposal is on fall prevention WRTG 394 s.docxJinElias52
My research proposal is on fall prevention
WRTG 394 students,
Your next writing assignment will be a
memo to your instructor for the final report.
Steps to Take in Completing this Assignment:
•
Identify the decision-maker or group of decision-makers to whom you will write your final report
• Describe the specific problem you are attempting to address.
• Prepare some primary research for your report.
• Write a memo to your instructor using the template provided below.
The Role of this Assignment for your Research Report:
This assignment is designed to help you put together the final paper in WRTG 394.
Remember, your final paper in WRTG 394 will be a report in which you do the following:
•
define a problem in your workplace or community persuasively and accurately
•
propose a solution or solutions to the problem or issue
Previous assignments in the class pointed out some sample topics for the report:
• a report to your manager at work suggesting that more teleworking options be given to employees at your workplace
• a report to your supervisor at work suggesting that email be used less frequently for communication and that another application be used to improve communication.
• a report to your manager at work suggesting that your office become paperless
• a report to the board of directors at your townhouse community to argue that the playground area in your community should be renovated
• a report to the manager of your unit at work noting that recycling facilities in the workplace should be improved
For writing assignment #2, you completed a background and synthesis of the literature on your topic.
For this writing assignment, you are going to identify the specific needs in your workplace or community that will be identified for your final report.
Examples of Primary Research for Specific Topics:
•
If you write a report to your manager at work suggesting that more teleworking options be given to employees at your workplace, you cannot simply prepare a report on teleworking. You must show that teleworking will
solve a specific problem or problems in your organization
.
•
If you write a a report to your supervisor at work suggesting that email be used less frequently for communication and that another application be used to improve communication, you cannot simply prepare a report on the benefits of social media in the workplace. You must
show that your specific office has problems in communicating by email and indicate the benefits of using alternative communication systems for your workplace environment
.
•
If you write a report to your manager at work suggesting that your office become paperless, you cannot simply prepare a report on the benefits of a paperless office. You must
show that your specific office can go paperless and indicate the benefits of your specific office going paperless
.
•
If you write a report to the board of directo.
My portion of the group assignment Must be done by Wednesday even.docxJinElias52
My portion of the group assignment:
Must be done by Wednesday evening
•
EFE Matrix; -
•
SWOT (TOWS) analysis; -
•
IFE Matrix; -
•
A list of alternative strategies, giving advantages and disadvantages for each; -
Walt Disney Company, p. 441, Case 8 (photos of pages upladed)
.
my project is about construcation houses for poor poeple in Denver .docxJinElias52
my project is about construcation houses for poor poeple in Denver
It is 30 pages
produce a 10 knowledge area project notebook enhancing one team members individual project. Assign different team members individual knowledge areas and refine the notebook to demonstrate synergy.
.
my name is abdullah aljedanii am from saudi arabia i graduate fr.docxJinElias52
my name is abdullah aljedani
i am from saudi arabia
i graduate from DHBAN high school 2013
i went to USA to ST
UDY ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND APLLLAY FOR UNIVERSITY
I WANT TO APLLY IN CIVIL ENIGINEERING
I NEED LETTER FOR THE UNIVERSITY EXPLAIN EHAT I DID AFTER HIGH SCHOOL
500 WORD
24 HOURS
.
My hypothesis Being disconnected from social media (texting, Facebo.docxJinElias52
My hypothesis: Being disconnected from social media (texting, Facebook, cell phone use, etc) causes stress in teenagers.
It is my belief partly based on observation (I teach HS students) that we have created a society where even the slightest communication is cause for a teenager’s engagement with his/her electronic device. Being constantly connected to others, or at least knowing that is an option appears to give them some peace of mind and perhaps helps them feel less alone. This worries me because I fear they will be unable to engage in experiences on their own without that constant connection to others. This behavior doesn’t allow for self-reflection, meditation, or other important moments designed to focus the attention inward. In other words, a fear of being alone. On the other hand, teenagers can reach out to others as never before, which is great in many cases.
I would choose the Experimental Research method for the following experiment, being careful to adhere to its two components: 1) that there is a random assignment of participants. I would stress that this should be a double-blind experiment so I do not influence its outcome; and 2) a manipulation of an independent variable.
My experiment: After taking a base level of stress indicators (heart rate, blood pressure, brain waves, perspiration levels, etc) I would randomly assign two separate groups of HS students to spend 2 days camping in the wilderness. I would set up several exciting events to take place such as river rafting, hunting, building a shelter for the night, etc. One group would have their cell phones with them (assuming there is a cell phone connection in this remote area), the second group would not. The first group could contact whomever they chose during the events and during a down time say, at night. The second group would not have cell phones to be able to do this. I would somehow monitor both group’s stress levels while out in the wilderness.
Summary: Because I would want to avoid the Correlation/Causation Fallacy, I would need to not know which students were which in this experiment. And I foresee some challenges that might not be avoidable and might skew this idea. There could be variables such as a student who is naturally highly stressed in the wilderness and his anxiety could spike giving my experiment the expected result but for the wrong reason. Not to mention the difficulty of setting up this experiment in the first place.
Personal note: Thinking about this idea has caused me to think in a more scientific way about the results of all experiments I learn about. The Correlation/Causation issue is one I fall victim to a lot. I like to think that I am an objective observer, but so far in this course, I am not so sure of that anymore. At the same time that I hate to have my thinking challenged in this way, I also feel excited that I am thinking on a deeper level than I ever have.
How would you select the groups at random? Would you use a number system? Perha.
My group is the Los Angeles Rams. We are looking to be sponsors with.docxJinElias52
My group is the Los Angeles Rams. We are looking to be sponsors with Dunkin' Donuts.Attached is an example of the Portland Timbers and a sponsorship with Chevrolet. On the bottom of the excel document you can see there are 4 different tabs. The tabs I need done are Research and Activity.
Thank you.
.
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;My father .docxJinElias52
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will;
The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done;
From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won;
Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells!
But I, with mournful tread,
Walk the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.
Examine the imagery in the stanza in bold. What is the significance of the two different images?
The speaker does not feel the joy everyone else is experiencing.
The speaker does not feel the misery everyone else is experiencing.
The speaker does not want anyone to know how unhappy he truly is.
The speaker does not want anyone to know how happy he truly is.
.
My character is Phoenix Jackson from the story A Worn PathMLA Form.docxJinElias52
My character is Phoenix Jackson from the story A Worn Path
MLA Format. 1200 words
Must have
Identify the type of character it is dealing with (A single character could be two or thres types.
Describe the character
Discuss the conflict in the story particularly in regards to the character's place in it.
Due tomorrow by 3pm
.
My assignment is to write an original essay of four to fivr parargra.docxJinElias52
My assignment is to write an original essay of four to fivr parargraphs describing a person I admire. My chocie is Lional Messi he is a famous soccer player. I need a hook in the introduction and three body paragraphs. First paragraphs about his childhoods secound paragraphs about join Barcalona fc third parargraph about change of the soccer history and a conclusion. I needed for secound English language person I don't want to too perfect.
.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
1. Chapter 8:
Microbial Genetics
*
Plasmids Exist in Cells Separate from Chromosomes
Big Picture: Genetics
The science of heredity
Central dogma of molecular biology
Mutations
Gene expression controlled by operons
2. Alteration of bacterial genes and/or gene expression
Cause of disease
Prevent disease treatment
Manipulated for human benefit
Big Picture: Genetics
Structure and Function of the Genetic Material
Learning Objectives
8-1 Define genetics, genome, chromosome, gene, genetic code,
genotype, phenotype, and genomics.
8-2 Describe how DNA serves as genetic information.
8-3 Describe the process of DNA replication.
8-4 Describe protein synthesis, including transcription, RNA
processing, and translation.
8-5 Compare protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
3. Structure and Function of the Genetic Material
Genetics: the study of genes, how they carry information, how
information is expressed, and how genes are replicated
Chromosomes: structures containing DNA that physically carry
hereditary information; the chromosomes contain genes
Genes: segments of DNA that encode functional products,
usually proteins
Genome: all the genetic information in a cell
Structure and Function of the Genetic Material The genetic code
is a set of rules that determines how a nucleotide sequence is
converted to an amino acid sequence of a proteinCentral dogma:
Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype: expression of the genes
DNA and Chromosomes
Bacteria usually have a single circular chromosome made of
DNA and associated proteins
Short tandem repeats (STRs): repeating sequences of noncoding
4. DNA
Figure 8.1 A Prokaryotic Chromosome
Chromosome
The Flow of Genetic Information
Vertical gene transfer: flow of genetic information from one
generation to the next
Horizontal gene transfer: flow of genetic information between
individuals of the SAME generation (see the middle portion of
the next slide!)
Figure 8.2 The Flow of Genetic Information
Parent cell
DNA
Genetic information is used
within a cell to produce the
proteins needed for the cell
5. to function.
Genetic information can be
transferred horizontally between
cells of the same generation.
Genetic information can be
transferred vertically to the
next generation of cells.
New combinations
of genes
Translation
Cell metabolizes and grows
Recombinant cell
Offspring cells
Transcription
DNA Replication
DNA forms a double helix
“Backbone” consists of deoxyribose-phosphate
Two strands of nucleotides are held together by hydrogen bonds
between A-T and C-G
Strands are antiparallel
Order of the nitrogen-containing bases forms the genetic
instructions of the organism
6. DNA Replication
One strand serves as a template for the production of a second
strand
Topoisomerase and gyrase relax the strands
Helicase separates the strands
A replication fork is created
DNA Replication
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand
In the 5‘ 3' direction
Initiated by an RNA primer
Leading strand is synthesized continuously
Lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously, creating Okazaki
fragments
DNA polymerase removes RNA primers; Okazaki fragments are
joined by the DNA polymerase and DNA ligase
7. Figure 8.5 A Summary of Events at the DNA Replication Fork
REPLICATION
Proteins stabilize the
unwound parental DNA.
The leading strand is
synthesized continuously
by DNA polymerase.
DNA polymerase
Enzymes unwind the
parental double
helix.
Primase
Parental
strand
The lagging strand is
synthesized discontinuously.
Primase, an RNA polymerase,
synthesizes a short RNA primer,
which is then extended by
DNA polymerase.
DNA polymerase
digests RNA primer
and replaces it with DNA.
DNA ligase joins
the discontinuous
fragments of the
lagging strand.
DNA
polymerase
DNA polymerase
Okazaki fragment
DNA ligase
RNA primer
Replication
8. fork
3'
5'
5'
3'
3'
5'
DNA Replication
Energy Needs
Energy for replication is supplied by nucleotides (remember,
ATP is one example of a nucleotide!)
Hydrolysis of two phosphate groups on ATP provides energy
Figure 8.4 Adding a Nucleotide to DNA
New
Strand
Template
Strand
Sugar
Phosphate
When a nucleoside triphosphate bonds to the sugar, it loses
two phosphates.
Hydrolysis of the phosphate bonds
provides the energy for the reaction.
9. DNA Replication
Most bacterial DNA replication is bidirectional
Each offspring cell receives one copy of the DNA molecule
Replication is highly accurate due to the proofreading capability
of DNA polymerase
Figure 8.6 Replication of Bacterial DNA
Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
8-3 Describe DNA replication, including the functions of DNA
gyrase, DNA ligase, and DNA polymerase.
RNA and Protein Synthesis
Ribonucleic acid
10. Single-stranded nucleotide
5-carbon ribose sugar
Contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): integral part of ribosomes
Transfer RNA (tRNA): transports amino acids during protein
synthesis
Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries coded information from DNA
to ribosomes
Transcription in Prokaryotes
Synthesis of a complementary mRNA strand from a DNA
template
Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to the
promoter sequence on DNA
Transcription proceeds in the 5‘ 3' direction; only one of the
two DNA strands is transcribed
Transcription stops when it reaches the terminator sequence on
DNA
Figure 8.7 The Process of Transcription
TRANSCRIPTION
DNA
mRNA
Protein
RNA
11. polymerase
DNA
RNA polymerase bound to DNA
RNA polymerase
RNA nucleotides
Template strand of DNA
RNA
Promoter
(gene begins)
RNA polymerase
RNA
RNA synthesis
Terminator
(gene ends)
RNA
polymerase
binds to the
promoter, and
DNA unwinds at
the beginning of
a gene.
RNA is synthesized
by complementary
base pairing of free
nucleotides with the
nucleotide bases on
the template strand
of DNA.
The site of synthesis
moves along DNA;
DNA that has been
transcribed rewinds.
Transcription reaches
the terminator.
Complete
RNA strand
12. RNA and RNA
polymerase are
released, and the
DNA helix re-forms.
Promoter
Translation
mRNA is translated into the “language” of proteins
Codons are groups of three mRNA nucleotides that code for a
particular amino acid (20 potential amino acids)
Each amino acid is coded by several codons… but each codon
will code for just one amino acid (the chart on next slide shows
you this better):
Translation
Translation of mRNA begins at the start codon: AUG
Translation ends at nonsense codons: UAA, UAG, UGA
Codons of mRNA are “read” sequentially
13. tRNA molecules transport the required amino acids to the
ribosome
tRNA molecules also have an anticodon that base-pairs with the
codon
Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds
Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation
Ribosome
P Site
Start
codon
Second
codon
mRNA
On the assembled ribosome, a tRNA carrying the first
amino acid is paired with the start codon on the mRNA.
The place where this first tRNA sits is called the P site.
A tRNA carrying the second amino acid approaches.
Components needed to begin
translation come together.
mRNA
Anticodon
Ribosomal
subunit
Ribosomal
subunit
tRNA
14. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation
Peptide bond forms
A site
mRNA
E site
mRNA
Ribosome moves
along mRNA
The second codon of the mRNA pairs with a tRNA
carrying the second amino acid at the A site. The first
amino acid joins to the second by a peptide bond. This
attaches the polypeptide to the tRNA in the P site.
The ribosome moves along the mRNA until the second tRNA is
in the P site. The next codon to be translated is brought into the
A site. The first tRNA now occupies the E site.
Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation
tRNA released
mRNA
The second amino acid joins to the third by another
peptide bond, and the first tRNA is released from the E
site.
The ribosome continues to move along the mRNA,
and new amino acids are added to the polypeptide.
mRNA
15. Growing
polypeptide
chain
Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation
mRNA
Polypeptide
released
Stop codon
When the ribosome reaches a stop
codon, the polypeptide is released.
Finally, the last tRNA is released, and the ribosome
comes apart. The released polypeptide forms a new
protein.
mRNA
New protein
Figure 8.10 Simultaneous Transcription and Translation in
Bacteria
TRANSLATION
DNA
mRNA
Protein
DNA
16. RNA
polymerase
Direction of transcription
Peptide
Polyribosome
Ribosome
mRNA
Direction of translation
5'
In bacteria, translation can begin before transcription is
complete
Transcription in Eukaryotes
In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus, whereas
translation occurs in the cytoplasm
Exons are regions of DNA that code for proteins
Introns are regions of DNA that do not code for proteins
Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) remove introns and
splice exons together
Check Your Understanding
8-5 How does mRNA production in eukaryotes differ from the
process in prokaryotes?
Figure 8.11 RNA Processing in Eukaryotic Cells
17. The Regulation of Bacterial Gene Expression
Constitutive genes are expressed at a fixed rate
Other genes are expressed only as needed
Inducible genes
Repressible genes
Catabolite repression
Pre-Transcriptional Control
Repression inhibits gene expression and decreases enzyme
synthesis
Mediated by repressors, proteins that block transcription
Default position of a repressible gene is on
Induction turns on gene expression
Initiated by an inducer
Default position of an inducible gene is off
The Operon Model of Gene Expression
Promoter: segment of DNA where RNA polymerase initiates
transcription of structural genes
Operator: segment of DNA that controls transcription of
structural genes
Operon: set of operator and promoter sites and the structural
18. genes they control
The Operon Model of Gene Expression
In an inducible operon, structural genes are not transcribed
unless an inducer is present
In the absence of lactose, the repressor binds to the operator,
preventing transcription
In the presence of lactose, metabolite of lactose–allolactose
(inducer)–binds to the repressor; the repressor cannot bind to
the operator and transcription occurs
Figure 8.12 An Inducible Operon
Control region
Structural genes
Operon
I
P
O
Z
Y
A
DNA
Regulatory
19. gene
Promoter
Operator
Structure of the operon. The operon consists of the promoter (P)
and operator (O) sites and structural genes that code for the
protein.
The operon is regulated by the product of the regulatory gene
(I)
Figure 8.12 An Inducible Operon
RNA polymerase
I
P
Z
Y
A
Transcription
Translation
Repressor
mRNA
Active
repressor
protein
Repressor active, operon off. The repressor protein binds with
the
operator, preventing transcription from the operon.
20. Figure 8.12 An Inducible Operon (3 of 3)
Allolactose
(inducer)
I
P
O
Z
Y
A
Transcription
Translation
Transacetylase
Permease
β-Galactosidase
Inactive
repressor
protein
Repressor inactive, operon on. When the inducer allolactose
binds
to the repressor protein, the inactivated repressor can no longer
block
transcription. The structural genes are transcribed, ultimately
resulting
in the production of the enzymes needed for lactose catabolism.
Operon
mRNA
The Operon Model of Gene Expression
In repressible operons, structural genes are transcribed until
they are turned off
21. Excess tryptophan is a corepressor that binds and activates the
repressor to bind to the operator, stopping tryptophan synthesis
Figure 8.13 A Repressible Operon
Control region
Structural genes
Operon
I
P
O
E
C
A
DNA
Regulatory
gene
Promoter
Operator
Structure of the operon. The operon consists of the promoter (P)
and operator (O) sites and structural genes that code for the
protein.
The operon is regulated by the product of the regulatory gene
(I)
D
B
22. Figure 8.13 A Repressible Operon (2 of 3)
RNA polymerase
I
P
O
E
D
C
B
A
Transcription
Repressor
mRNA
Translation
Inactive
repressor
protein
Polypeptides
comprising the
enzymes for
tryptophan
synthesis
Operon
mRNA
Repressor inactive, operon on. The repressor is inactive, and
transcription and translation proceed, leading to the synthesis
of tryptophan.
23. Figure 8.13 A Repressible Operon (3 of 3)
I
P
E
D
C
B
A
Active
repressor
protein
Tryptophan
(corepressor)
Repressor active, operon off. When the corepressor tryptophan
binds
to the repressor protein, the activated repressor binds with the
operator, preventing transcription from the operon.
Positive Regulation
Catabolite repression inhibits cells from using carbon sources
other than glucose
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) builds up in a cell when glucose is not
available
cAMP binds to the catabolic activator protein (CAP) that in turn
binds the lac promoter, initiating transcription and allowing the
cell to use lactose
24. Figure 8.14 The Growth Rate of E. Coli on Glucose and Lactose
Bacteria growing on
glucose as the sole carbon
source grow faster than on
lactose.
Bacteria growing in a
medium containing glucose
and lactose first consume
the glucose and then, after a short lag time, the lactose. During
the lag time, intra-cellular cAMP increases, the lac operon is
transcribed, more lactose is transported into the cell, and β-
galacto-sidase is synthesized to break down lactose.
Glucose
Lactose
All glucose
consumed
Glucose
used
Lag
time
Lactose used
Figure 8.15 Positive Regulation of the Lac Operon
Promoter
lacZ
lacl
DNA
25. Operator
RNA
polymerase
can bind
and transcribe
cAMP
Inactive
CAP
Active
CAP
Inactive lac
repressor
Lactose present, glucose scarce (cAMP level high). If
glucose is
scarce, the high level of cAMP activates CAP, and the lac
operon produces
large amounts of mRNA for lactose digestion.
CAP-binding site
CAP-binding site
DNA
lacl
Promoter
lacZ
Operator
RNA
polymerase
can't bind
Inactive
CAP
Inactive lac
repressor
Lactose present, glucose present (cAMP level low). When
glucose is
present, cAMP is scarce, and CAP is unable to stimulate
transcription.
26. Epigenetic Control
Methylating nucleotides turn genes off
Methylated (off) genes can be passed to offspring cells
Not permanent
Changes in Genetic Material
Mutation: a permanent change in the base sequence of DNA
Mutations may be neutral, beneficial, or harmful
Mutagens: agents that cause mutations
Spontaneous mutations: occur in the absence of a mutagen
Types of Mutations
Base substitution (point mutation)
Change in one base in DNA
Missense mutation
Base substitution results in change in an amino acid
Nonsense mutation
Base substitution results in a nonsense (stop) codon
Frameshift mutation
Insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotide pairs
Shifts the translational “reading frame”
27. Chemical Mutagens & radiation
Nitrous acid: causes adenine to bind with cytosine instead of
thymine
Nucleoside analog: incorporates into DNA in place of a normal
base; causes mistakes in base pairing
Glyphosate / RoundUp has also been seen to be directly
mutagenic (again, see paper in supplemental folder)
Ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma rays) causes the
formation of ions that can oxidize nucleotides and break the
deoxyribose-phosphate backbone
UV radiation causes thymine dimers
Repair of mutations can happen:
Photolyases separate thymine dimers
Nucleotide excision repair: Enzymes cut out incorrect bases and
fill in correct bases
Ultraviolet light
Exposure to ultraviolet light
causes adjacent thymines to
become cross-linked, forming
a thymine dimer and disrupting
their normal base pairing.
Thymine dimer
An endonuclease cuts the
DNA, and an exonuclease
removes the damaged DNA.
New DNA
DNA polymerase fills the gap
28. by synthesizing new DNA,
using the intact strand as
a template.
DNA ligase seals the
remaining gap by joining the
old and new DNA.
The Frequency of Mutation
Spontaneous mutation rate = 1 in 109 replicated base pairs or 1
in 106 replicated genes
Mutagens increase the mutation rate to per 10-5 or 10-3
replicated gene
Identifying Mutants
Positive (direct) selection detects mutant cells because they
grow or appear different than unmutated cells
Negative (indirect) selection detects mutant cells that cannot
grow or perform a certain function
Auxtotroph: mutant that has a nutritional requirement absent in
the parent
Identifying Chemical Carcinogens
The Ames test exposes mutant bacteria to mutagenic substances
to measure the rate of reversal of the mutation
Indicates degree to which a substance is mutagenic
IMPORTANT: If the Ames test suggests no mutagenicity, this
29. is NOT a “for-sure” negative– sometimes chemicals react with a
human protein to yield a carcinogen !
Genetic Transfer and Recombination
Learning Objectives
8-14 Describe the functions of plasmids and transposons.
8-15 Differentiate horizontal and vertical gene transfer.
8-16 Compare the mechanisms of genetic recombination in
bacteria.
Genetic Transfer and Recombination
Genetic recombination: exchange of genes between two DNA
molecules…in particular, between 2 same-aged individuals
instead of from parent to offspring; creates genetic diversity
especially among microbes (which do not normally sexually
reproduce…sexual reproduction / meiosis and fertilization is the
norm for most multicellular creatures, but unicellular organisms
cannot do that)
Vertical gene transfer: transfer of genes from an organism to its
offspring
Horizontal gene transfer: transfer of genes between cells of the
same generation
30. Plasmids and Transposons
Transposons = Mobile genetic elements
Move from one chromosome to another or from one cell to
another
Occur in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
Plasmids are self-replicating circular pieces of DNA
1 to 5% the size of a bacterial chromosome
Often code for proteins that enhance the pathogenicity of a
bacterium
Plasmids
Conjugative plasmid: carries genes for sex pili and transfer of
the plasmid
Dissimilation plasmids: encode enzymes for the catabolism of
unusual compounds
Resistance factors (R factors): encode antibiotic resi stance
Transposons
Transposons are segments of DNA that can move from one
region of DNA to another
Contain insertion sequences (IS) that code for transposase that
cuts and reseals DNA
Complex transposons carry other genes (e.g., in antibiotic
resistance)
31. Transformation in Bacteria
Transformation: genes transferred from one bacterium to
another as “naked” DNA
Figure 8.28 The Mechanism of Genetic Transformation in
Bacteria
a
b
c
d
DNA fragments
from donor cells
Recipient cell
A
D
B
C
Chromosomal DNA
Recipient cell takes
up donor DNA.
Donor DNA aligns
with complementary
bases.
Recombination occurs
between donor DNA
and recipient DNA.
A
D
B
C
33. Figure 8.30a Conjugation in E. coli
RECOMBINATION
Bacterial
chromosome
Mating bridge
Replication
and transfer
of F factor
F factor
F+ cell
F– cell
When an F factor (a plasmid) is transferred from a donor (F+)
to a recipient (F–), the F– cell is converted to an F+ cell.
F+ cell
F+ cell
Transduction in Bacteria
DNA is transferred from a donor cell to a recipient via a
bacteriophage
Generalized transduction: Random bacterial DNA is packaged
inside a phage (virus that infects bacteria) and transferred to a
recipient cell
Specialized transduction: Specific bacterial genes are packaged
inside a phage and transferred to a recipient cell
34. Figure 8.32 Transduction by a Bacteriophage
RECOMBINATION
Phage protein coat
Phage DNA
Bacterial
chromosome
A phage infects the
donor bacterial cell.
Phage DNA and proteins are made,
and the bacterial chromosome is
broken into pieces.
Occasionally during phage assembly,
pieces of bacterial DNA are pack-
aged in a phage capsid. Then the
donor cell lyses and releases phage
particles containing bacterial DNA.
Phage
DNA
Bacterial
DNA
A phage carrying
bacterial DNA infects
a new host cell, the
recipient cell.
Recipient
cell
Donor
bacterial
DNA
Recipient
bacterial
DNA
Recombinant
cell reproduces
normally
35. Recombination can
occur, producing a
recombinant cell with
a genotype different
from both the donor
and recipient cells.
Many cell
divisions
Donor
cell
Genes and Evolution
Mutations and recombination create cell diversity
Diversity is the raw material for evolution
Natural selection acts on populations of organisms to ensure the
survival of organisms fit for a particular environment
Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
8-17 Natural selection means that the environment favors
survival of some genotypes. From where does diversity in
genotypes come?
Use your selected company from Weeks 1-5 for this week’s
assessment.
You’ve become a trusted resource for your organization, and
they’ve asked your advice on having a competitive advantage in
the field. More specifically, they would like your analysis and
36. recommendations on ways to bring their company culture,
demographics, and technologies up to current industry practices
and beyond.
Review the “How to Make a Presentation” video.
Create a 10- to 12-slide presentation with detailed speaker notes
and visuals on every slide that includes the following elements:
· An analysis of the organization’s current culture (e.g., beliefs,
expectations, values, and norms). Address how managers
influence the organizational culture.
· An evaluation of the impact of demographic forces (e.g., age,
gender, ethnic origin, race, sexual orientation, and social class)
of your selected organization and what it could be
· Note: This is a good place to use your
chart/outline/infographic from Wk 5.
· An examination of the impact of technological forces (e.g.,
changes in the technology managers use to design, produce, or
distribute goods and services) of your selected company
· Consider how this can contribute to innovation within the
industry.
· An examination on how the organization has complied with
ethics and social responsibility behavior
· Recommendations of ways to innovate based on your analysis
· Summary
· References
