Stream Gauging: Necessity; Selection of gauging sites; Methods of discharge measurement; Area-Velocity method; Venturi flume; Chemical method; weir method; Measurement of velocity; Floats Surface float, Sub–surface float or Double float, Twin float, Velocity rod or Rod float; Pitot tube; Current meter; Working of current meter; rating of current meter; Measurement of area of flow; Measurement of width - Pivot point method; Measurement of depth Sounding rod, Echo- sounder.
Introduction:
Necessity of irrigation- scope of irrigation engineering- benefits and ill effects of irrigation- irrigation development in India- types of irrigation systems, Soil-water plant relationship: Classification of soil water- soil
moisture contents- depth of soil water available to plants-permanent
and ultimate wilting point
Water requirements of crops:
Depth of water applied during irrigation- Duty of water and deltaimprovement
of duty- command area and intensity of irrigation consumptive use of water and evapotranspiration- irrigation efficiencies- assessment of irrigation water
irrigation water management deals with various management aspects such as canal management, designing irrigation systems, irrigation efficiency, scheduling and water quaility etc.
Stream Gauging: Necessity; Selection of gauging sites; Methods of discharge measurement; Area-Velocity method; Venturi flume; Chemical method; weir method; Measurement of velocity; Floats Surface float, Sub–surface float or Double float, Twin float, Velocity rod or Rod float; Pitot tube; Current meter; Working of current meter; rating of current meter; Measurement of area of flow; Measurement of width - Pivot point method; Measurement of depth Sounding rod, Echo- sounder.
Introduction:
Necessity of irrigation- scope of irrigation engineering- benefits and ill effects of irrigation- irrigation development in India- types of irrigation systems, Soil-water plant relationship: Classification of soil water- soil
moisture contents- depth of soil water available to plants-permanent
and ultimate wilting point
Water requirements of crops:
Depth of water applied during irrigation- Duty of water and deltaimprovement
of duty- command area and intensity of irrigation consumptive use of water and evapotranspiration- irrigation efficiencies- assessment of irrigation water
irrigation water management deals with various management aspects such as canal management, designing irrigation systems, irrigation efficiency, scheduling and water quaility etc.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
2. Functions of Irrigation Water
Soil furnishes the following for the plant life:
1. To supply water partially or totally for crop need
2. To cool both the soil and the plant
3. Provides water for its transpiration.
4. Dissolves minerals for its nutrition.
5. Provides Oxygen for its metabolism.
6. Serves as anchor for its roots.
7. To enhance fertilizer application- fertigation
8. To Leach Excess Salts
9. To improve Groundwater storage
10. To Facilitate continuous cropping
2
Chapter-1
3. Preparation of Land for Irrigation
The uncultivated land should be properly prepared, as following, before irrigation
water is applied upon it.
(i) Removal of thick jungle, bushes etc., from the raw land. The roots of the trees
should be extracted and burnt. The land should thereafter be properly cleaned.
(ii) The land should be made level. High patches should be scraped and depression
filled. Unless this is done, water will fill the depression and duty may be too high.
(iii) The land should be provided with regular slope in the direction of falling gradient.
(iv) The land should be divided into suitable plots by small levees according to the
method of irrigation to be practiced.
(v) Permanent supply ditches and water courses should be excavated at regular
spacing which facilitate proper distribution of the water to the entire field.
(vi) A drain ditch which carries the waste water should also be excavated. .
(vii) Proper drainage measures should be adopted where the danger of water logging
may become eminent after the introduction of canal irrigation
3
Water Requirement of Crops
4. Crop Period or Base Period
The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
harvesting is called the crop-period.
The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its
last watering before harvesting is called the Base period.
Crop period is slightly more than the base period, but for all practical purposes,
they are taken as one and the same thing, and generally expressed in B days.
4
Water Requirement of Crops
5. SOME DEFINITIONS
Gross Commanded Area (GCA)
The total area lying between drainage boundaries which can be commanded or irrigated
by a canal system or water course is known as gross commanded area.
Culturable Commanded Area (CCA)
Gross commanded area contains some unfertile barren land, local ponds, villages,
graveyards etc which are actually unculturable areas.
The gross commanded area minus these unculturable area on which crops can be grown
satisfactorily is known as Culturable Commanded Area.
CCA = GCA – Unculturable Area
Culturable Cultivated Area
The area on which crop is grown at a particular time or crop season.
Culturable Uncultivated Area
The area on which no crop is grown at a particular time or crop season
5
Water Requirement of Crops
6. Intensity of Irrigation (I.I)
Percentage of CCA that is cultivated in a particular season.
Kor depth and kor period
The distribution of water during the base period is not uniform, since crops require
maximum water during first watering after the crops have grown a few centimeters.
During the subsequent watering the quantity of water needed by crops gradually
decreases and is least when crop gains maturity.
The first watering is known as kor watering, and the depth applied is known as kor
depth.
The portion of the base period in which kor watering is needed is known as kor period.
While designing the capacity of a channel, kor water must be taken into account since
discharge in the canal has to be maximum during this time.
Crop ratio
The ratio of area irrigated in Rabi season to that irrigated in Kharif season is known as
crop ratio.
The crop ratio is so selected that the discharge in the canal during both the seasons may
be uniform.
6
Water Requirement of Crops
7. Outlet factor
It is defined as the duty at the outlet.
Time factor
The time factor of a canal is the ratio of the number of days the canal has actually run to
the number of days of irrigation period.
For example, if the number of days of irrigation period = 12, and the canal has actually
run for 5 days, the time factor will be 5/12.
(Note: A day has a period of 24 hours (i.e. it includes the night also).
Capacity factor
This is the ratio of the mean supply discharge to the full supply discharge of a canal.
7
Water Requirement of Crops
8. Delta
Each crop requires a certain amount of water after a certain fixed interval of time,
throughout its period of growth.
The depth of water required every time, generally varies from 5 to 10 cm
depending upon the type of the crop.
If this depth of water is required five times during the base period, then the total
water required by the crop for its full growth, will be 5 multiplied by each time
depth. The final figure will represent the total quantity of water required by the
crop for its full-fledged nourishment.
The total quantity of water required by the crop for its full growth may be
expressed in centimeter (inches) or hectare-metre (Acre-ft) or million cubic meters
(million cubic ft).
This total depth of water (in cm) required by a crop to come to maturity is called
its delta (∆).
8
Water Requirement of Crops
9. Example 1
If rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval of about 10 days.
and the crop period for rice is 120 days, find out the delta for rice.
Solution.
Water is required at an interval of 10 days for a period of 120 days.
Hence, No. of required waterings = 120/10 = 12
Therefore, Total depth of water required = No. of waterings x Depth of watering
= 12 x 10 cm = 120 cm.
Hence, ∆ for rice =120 cm. Ans.
Example 2
If wheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the base period for
wheat is 140 days, find out the value of delta for wheat.
Solution.
No. of required waterings = 140/28 = 5
The depth of water required each time = 7.5 cm.
:. Total depth of water reqd. in 140 days = 5 x 7.5 cm = 37.5 cm
Hence, ∆ for wheat = 37.5 cm. Ans. 9
Water Requirement of Crops
10. Average Approximate Values of ∆ for Certain Important Crops in Pakistan
10
Water Requirement of Crops
S. No Crop Delta on field
1. Suger cane 120 cm (48”)
2. Rice 120 cm (48”)
3. Tobacco 75 cm (30”)
4. Garden fruits 60 cm (24”)
5. Cotton 50 cm (22”)
6. Vegetables 45 cm (18”)
7. Wheat 40 cm (16”)
8. Barley 30 cm (12”)
9. Maize 25 cm (10”)
10. Fodder 22.5 cm (9”)
11. Peas 15 cm (6”)
11. Irrigation requirements of Certain Important crops
11
Water Requirement of Crops
S.No Crop Period of growth
Average
water depth
required
(in cm)
Irrigation requirements and
remarks
Average quantity of
seed required
(kg/hectare)
Average quantity of
yield obtained
(kg/hectare)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(i)
Kharif Crops
Maize (high yielding) June to Sept-Oct
45
Four or five watering .
Sensitive to drought and floods.
Responsible to fertilizers.
15 3,000
(ii)
Bajra (Spiked millets
or Pearl millets),
high yielding
July to Nov 30
Water should not stand.
Irrigation as required.
Resistant to drought and flooding.
3.75 2,000
(iii)
Juar (Great millets),
high yielding
Sown in July as
fodder and cut green
more than once.
30 Same as above 12.5 3,000
(iv) Ground-nut May to Nov-Dec 45 ‘Paleo’ reqd. before sowing. -- 1,600
(v) Cotton May-June to Nov-Jan 25-40
Three or four irrigations are required.
Damage up to the extent of 50% may
be caused by flooding, rains ets.
-- 500
(vi) Pulses like Arhar, etc. July-Aug to Nov-Dec 30 Irrigated when leaves get dries. 12.5 700
(vii)
Transplanted Rice
(Paddy), high yielding
July to Nov 125-150
Standing water of 5 to 8 cm gives best
results.
30 to 35 kg of seed is
sufficient to raise
nursery to transplant one
hectare.
4500
(viii) Til July-Aug to Oct-Nov --
Generally not irrigated but better to
irrigate once.
1.25 350
12. 12
Water Requirement of Crops
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(i)
Rabi Crops
Wheat (ordinary)
Oct to March-April 37.5 Three-four watering of 7-10 cm depth. 80-100 1500
(ii) Wheat (high yielding) Oct to March-April 45 Five-six watering of 7-10 cm depth. 100-125 4000
(iii) Gram (high yielding) Sept-Oct to March 30 Irrigated when leaves get dry. 12.5 3500
(iv) Barley Oct to Mar-April 30
Two watering; one at jointing and
another at booting stage.
120 1300
(v) Potatoes Sept-Oct to Feb 60-90
Usually irrigated ; sown in high hills
upto early April. Second crop in plains
is sometimes, taken in Feb-April.
15,000 35,000
(vi) Tobacco Oct-Feb to Feb-May 60 Four to five watering. 4,500
(vii) Linseed i.e Alsi Oct-Nov to March 45-50
Irrigated at intervals of 15 days.
Resistant to drought but damaged by
frost and flooding.
700
(viii) Mustard Oct to Feb-Mar 45 Watered at intervals of 7-10 days 33 1000 to 1600
Overlapping crop generally classified under Rabi crop
(i) Sugercane Feb-March to Dec-March 90 5 or 6 waterings of 10 cm or more 500 25,000 – 30,000
13. Duty of Water
The duty of water is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of the
crop it matures.
This volume of water is generally expressed as, “a unit discharge flowing for a time
equal to the base period of the crop, called Base of a duty”.
If water flowing at a rate of one cubic metre per second, runs continuously for B days,
and matures 200 hectares, then the duty of water for that particular crop will be defined
as 200 hectares per cumec to the base of B days.
Hence, duty is defined as the area irrigated per cumec of discharge running for base
period B. The duty is generally represented by the letter D. Mathematically, D = A / Q
The duty of water can be expressed as one of the following four ways:
(i) By the number of hectare (or acre,) that one cumec (or cusec) of water can irrigate
during the base period, e.g. 1700 hectares/cumec (or 120 acres/cusec). .
(ii) By total depth of water (or Delta) i.e. 1.20 metres.
(iii) By number of hectare, (or acres) that can be irrigated by a million cubic metre (or
million cu.ft) of stored water. This system is used for tank irrigation.
(iv) By the number of hectare-metres (or acre-ft) expended per hectare (or acre)
irrigated. This is also used in tank irrigation.
13
Water Requirement of Crops
14. For a precise statement of the duty by the first method, which is quite common in canal
irrigation system, it is necessary to state the following along with the duty figures :
(a) base period, and (b) place of measurement of duty
i.e. the duty of water for a certain crop is 1700 hectares/cumec at the field, for a base
period of 120 days.
The duty varies with the place of its measurement, because of the continuous
conveyance losses as the water flows.
The duty of water goes on increasing as the water flows. For example, in the following
Figure, let C be the head of the field, B be the head of the water course or the field
channel, and A be the head of the distributary.
Let the area of the field be 1700 hectares,
and let 1 cumec water be required to be
delivered at point C, for the growth of the
crop. Thus, the duty at the head of the
field will be 1700 hectares/cumec.
Assuming the conveyance losses between
B and C to be 0.1 cumec (say), the
discharge required at B will be 1.1
cumecs, and hence duty of water
measured at B will be 1700/1.1 = 1545
hectare/cumec only.
14
Water Requirement of Crops
15. Again, if the losses between A to B are taken to be equal to 0.2 cumec, the discharge
required at the head of the distributary will be 1.1 + 0.2 = 1.3 cumecs, i e. if 1.3 cumecs
are discharged at A, then 1 cumec will 1 reach at the head of the field. Hence the duty
of water at A will be 1700/1.3 = 1308 hectares/cumec only. Thus, duty at the head of the
water course (at B) is lesser than the duty at the head of the field, and is greater than the
duty at the head of the distributary. The duty at the head of the water course is called the
outlet duty.
Thus measurements of duty are taken at four points noted below:
(i) At the head of main canal - known as Gross Quantity.
(ii) At the head of a branch canal - known as Lateral Quantity.
(iii) At the outlet of a canal - known as Outlet Factor.
(iv) At the head of land, to be irrigated - known as Net Quantity.
15
Water Requirement of Crops
17. Relation between Duty, Delta and Base period
Let, base period of the crop be B days, and
one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the field for B days.
Now, volume of water applied to this crop during B days
= V = (1 x 60 x 60 x 24 x B) m3
= 86,400 B m3
By definition of duty (D), one cubic meter supplied for B days matures D hectares
of land.
:. This quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D sq. m of area.
Total depth of water applied on this land
= Volume/area = 86400 B / 104 D = 8.64 B / D metres
By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (∆),
∆ = 8.64 B / D meter
∆ = 864 B / D cm
where, ∆ is in cm, B is in days ; and D is duty in hectares/cumec.
17
Water Requirement of Crops
18. Example
Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the field. The base
period of this crop is 120 days.
Solution.
In this question, B = 120 days; and D = 864 hectares/cumec
Since, ∆ = 864 B / D cm
= 864 x 120 / 864
= 120 cm
18
Water Requirement of Crops
19. Example 3.3 (Punmia)
An irrigation canal has gross commanded area of 80,000 hectares out of which
85% is culturable irrigable. The intensity of irrigation for Kharif season is 30%
and for Rabi season is 60%. Find the discharge required at the head of canal if
the duty at its head is 800 hectares/cumec for Kharif season and 1700
hectares/cumec for Rabi season.
Solution:
Gross culturable area = GCA = 80,000 hectares
Culturable commanded area = CCA = 0.85 x 80,000 = 68,000 hectares
Area under Kharif season = 68,000 x 0.30 = 20,400 hectares
Area under Rabi season = 68,000 x 0.60 = 40,800 hectares
Water required at the head of the canal in Kharif = Area/duty
= 20,400/800 = 25.5 cumecs
Water required at the head of the canal in Rabi = Area/duty
= 40,800/1700 = 24.0 cumecs
Since water requirement in Kharif is more so the canal may be designed to
carry a discharge of 25.5 cumecs.
20. Example 3.4 (Punmia)
A watercourse has a culturable commanded area of 2600 hectares, out of
which the intensities of irrigation for perennial sugar-cane and rice crops are
20% and 40% respectively. The duty for these crops at the head of watercourse
are 750 hectares/cumec and 1800 hectares/cumec respectively. Find the
discharge required at the head of watercourse if the peak demand is 20% of the
average requirement.
Solution:
Culturable commanded area = CCA = 2,600 hectares
Area under sugar-cane = 2600 x 0.2 = 520 hectares
Area under rice = 2600 x 0.4 = 1040 hectares
Water required for sugarcane = Area/duty = 520/750 = 0.694 cumecs
Water required for rice = Area/duty = 1040/1800 = 0.577 cumecs
Since sugar-cane is a perennial crop, it will require water throughout the year.
Hence,
Watercourse must carry a total discharge = 0.694 + 0.577
= 1.271 cumecs
21. Example 3.5 (Punmia)
The left branch canal carrying a discharge of 20 cumecs has a culturable
commanded area of 20,000 hectares. The intensity of Rabi crop is 80% and the
base period is 120 days. The right branch canal carrying a discharge of
8cumecs has a culturable commanded area of 12,000 hectares, intensity of
irrigation of Rabi crop is 50% and base period is 120 days. Compare the
efficiencies of the two canal systems.
Solution:
(a)For left branch canal:
Area under Rabi crop = 20,000 x 0.8 = 16,000 hectares
Discharge = 20 cumecs
Duty = Area/Discharge = 16,000/20 = 800 hectares / cumec
(b) For right branch canal:
Area under Rabi crop = 12,000 x 0.5 = 6,000 hectares
Discharge = 8 cumecs
Duty = Area/Discharge = 6,000/8 = 750 hectares / cumec
Since left canal system has higher duty, it is more efficient.
22. Example 3.6 (Punmia)
A watercourse has a culturable commanded area of 1200 hectares. The
intensity of irrigation for crop A is 40% and for B is 35%, both the crops being
Rabi crops. Crop A has kor period of 20 days and crop B has a kor period of 15
days. Calculate the discharge of the watercourse if the kor depth for crop A is
10 cm and for crop B is 16 cm.
Solution:
(a)For crop A:
Area under irrigation = 1200 x 0.40 = 480 hectares
Kor period = b = 20 days; Kor depth = δ = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Duty = (8.64 x b) / δ = (8.64 x 20) / 0.1 = 1728 hectares/cumec
Hence discharge required = Area / duty = 480/1728 = 0.278 cumecs
(b) For crop B:
Area under irrigation = 1200 x 0.35 = 420 hectares
Kor period = b = 15 days; Kor depth = δ = 16 cm = 0.16 m
Duty = (8.64 x b) / δ = (8.64 x 15) / 0.16 = 810 hectares/cumec
Hence discharge required = 420/810 = 0.518 cumecs
Thus the design discharge of watercourse = 0.278 + 0.518 = 0.796
say 0.8 cumecs
23. Example 3.7 (Punmia)
A watercourse commands an irrigated area of 600 hectares. The intensity of
irrigation of rice in this area is 60%. The transplantation of rice takes 12 days,
and total depth of water required by the crop is 50cm on the field during the
transplantation period. During the transplantation period, the useful rain falling
on the field is 10 cm. Find the duty of irrigation water for the crop on the field
during transplantation, at the head of the field, and also at the head of the
distributary, assuming losses of water to be 20% in the watercourse. Also
calculate the discharge required in the watercourse.
Solution:
Note:
Rice seed is initially germinated in separate seed beds.
Afterwards, Seedlings (young plants) of rice are thrust (transplanted) by hand
in another previously prepared land.
Preparation of land for rice crop includes its thorough saturation before
ploughing, so as to puddle and soften the surface soil.
Transplantation takes about 10-15 days; requires large quantity of water, i.e.
30-60 cm on the field.
24. Example 3.7 (Cont.)
We know that Δ = 8.64 B / D
Where
B = transplantation period = 12 days
Δ = Depth of irrigation water actually applied in the field
= 50 – 10 = 40 cm = 0.40 m
D = Duty of the irrigation water on the field in hectares/cumec
D = 8.64 B / Δ = (8.64 x 12) / 0.40 = 259.5 hectares/cumec
This duty is on the field.
Since the losses in the canal are 20%, 1 cumec of water discharge at the head
of watercourse will become 0.8 cumecs at the head of field and hence will
irrigate 259.5 x 0.8 = 207.6 hectares only.
Hence the duty of water at the head of watercourse will be 207.6 ha/cumec.
Now total area under rice plantation = 600 x 0.6 = 360 hectares
Discharge at the head of watercourse = 360/207.6 = 1.735 cumecs
25. Example 3.8 (Punmia)
Table below gives the necessary data about the crop, their
duty and the area under each crop commanded by a canal
taking off from a storage reservoir. Taking a time factor for
the canal to be 13/20. calculate the discharge required at
the head of the canal. If the capacity factor is 0.8, determine
the design discharge.
Crop Base period
(days)
Area
(hectares)
Duty at head of
canal
(hectares/cumec)
Sugar-cane 320 850 580
Overlap for sugar-cane
(hot weather)
90 120 580
Wheat (Rabi) 120 600 1600
Bajri (Monsoon) 120 500 2000
Vegetable (hot weather) 120 360 600
26. Solution:
Discharge required for crops:
Discharge for sugar-cane = 850/580 = 1.465 cumecs
Discharge for overlap sugar-cane = 120/580 = 0.207 cumecs
Discharge for wheat = 600/1600 = 0.375 cumecs
Discharge for Bajri = 500/2000 = 0.250 cumecs
Discharge for vegetables = 360/600 = 0.600 cumecs
Since sugar-cane has a base period of 320 days, it will require water in
all seasons i.e. Rabi, Monsoon & Hot weather.
Discharge required in Rabi = 1.465 + 0.375 = 1.84 cumecs
Discharge required in Monsoon = 1.465 + 0.25 = 1.685 cumecs
Discharge required in hot weather = 1.465 + 0.207 + 0.600 = 2.272
cumecs
Thus the maximum demand of 2.272 cusecs is in the hot weather.
27. The time factor = 13/20
Therefore,
Full supply discharge at the head of the canal will be
= 20272 x 20/13
= 3.32 cumecs
Since, Capacity factor = 0.8
Hence,
Design discharge = full supply discharge / capacity factor
= 3.32 / 0.8
= 4.15 cumecs
28. Example 3.9 (Punmia)
The base period, intensity of irrigation and duty of various
crops under a canal system are given in the table below.
Find the reservoir capacity if the canal losses are 20% and
the reservoir losses are 12%.
Crop Base period
(days)
Area
(hectares)
Duty at the field
(hectares/cumec)
Wheat 120 4800 1800
Sugar-cane 360 5600 800
Cotton 200 2400 1400
Rice 120 3200 900
Vegetables 120 1400 700
29. Solution:
(i) Wheat
Discharge required = 4800 / 1800 cumecs
Volume of water required = (4800 / 1800) x 120 = 320 cumec-days
(ii) Sugar-cane
Discharge required = 5600 / 800 cumecs
Volume of water required = (5600 / 800) x 360 = 2520 cumec-days
(iii) Cotton
Discharge required = 2400 / 1400 cumecs
Volume of water required = (2400 / 1400) x 200 = 342 cumec-days
(iv) Rice
Discharge required = 3200 / 900 cumecs
Volume of water required = (3200 / 900) x 120 = 426 cumec-days
(v) Vegetables
Discharge required = 1400 / 700 cumecs
Volume of water required = (1400 / 700) x 120 = 240 cumec-days
30. Hence, total volume of water required on the field for all crops = 320 + 2520 +
342 + 426 + 240 = 3848 cumec-days
1 cumec-day = 1 cumec flowing for a whole day
= 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 m3
1 hectare meter = 1 x 104 m2
Hence, 1 cumec-day = (1 x 24 x 60 x 60) / (1 x 104) hectare-meters
= 8.64 hectare-meters
Hence, total volume of water required on the field = 3848 x 8.64
= 33300 hectare-meters
Since losses in the canal system are 20%, the volume of water required at the
head of canal = 33300 x (100/80) = 41600 ha-m
Allowing 12 % reservoir losses,
The capacity of the reservoir = 41600 x (100/88) = 47300 ha-m
Note: Alternatively this problem can also be solved in a tabular form. (Next
slide)
31. Crop
Base period
B (days)
Duty at the
field D
(ha/cumec)
Delta Δ =
(8.64 B)/D
Area
(ha)
Volume
= (Δ x A)
(ha-m)
Wheat 120 1800 0.576 4800 2765.0
Sugar-cane 360 800 3.890 5600 21800.0
Cotton 200 1400 1.235 2400 2965.0
Rice 120 900 1.152 3200 3690.0
Vegetables 120 700 1.480 1400 2070.0
Total 33290
Therefore, capacity of the reservoir = 33290 / (0.8 x 0.88) =
47,300 ha-m
32. FACTORS AFFECTING DUTY
The duty of water of canal system depends upon a variety of the factors. The principal
factors are:
1. Methods and systems of irrigation;
2. Mode of applying water to the crops;
3. Methods of cultivation;
4. Time and frequency of tilling;
5. Types of the crop;
6. Base period of the crop;
7. Climatic conditions of the area;
8. Quality of water;
9. Method of assessment;
10. Canal conditions;
11. Character of soil and sub-soil of the canal;
12. Character of soil and sub-soil of the irrigation fields. 32
Water Requirement of Crops
33. METHODS OF IMPROVING DUTY
When once the various factors affecting duty are properly understood, the duty can be
improved by making those factors less effective which tend to reduce the duty.
1. Suitable method of applying water to the crops should be used.
2. The land should be properly ploughed and leveled before sowing the crop. It should
be given good tilth.
3. The land should be cultivated frequently, since frequent cultivation reduces loss of
moisture specially when the ground water is within capillary reach of ground surface.
4. The canals should be lined. This reduces seepage and percolation losses. Also, water
can be conveyed quickly, thus reducing, evaporation losses.
5. Parallel canals should be constructed. If there are two canals running side by side,
the F.S.L. will be lowered, and the losses will thus be reduced.
6. The idle length of the canal should be reduced.
7. The alignment of the canal either in sandy soil or in fissured rock should be avoided.
8. The canal should be so aligned that the areas to be cultivated are concentrated along
it.
33
Water Requirement of Crops
34. 9. The source of supply should be such that it gives good quality of water.
10. The rotation of crops must be practiced.
11. Volumetric method of assessment should be used.
12. The farmers must be trained in the proper use of water, so that they apply correct
quantity of water at correct timing.
13. The land should be redistributed to the farmers so that they get only as much land
as they are capable of managing it.
14. Research stations should be established in various localities to study the soil, the
seed and conservation of moisture. The problems concerning the economical use of
water should be studied at research stations.
15. The canal administrative staff should be efficient, responsible and honest. The
operation of the canal system should be such that the farmers both at the head of the
canal as well as at the tail end get water as and when they need it.
34
Water Requirement of Crops
35. Evapotranspiration (ET)
Evapotranspiration denotes the quantity of water transpired by
plants during their growth, or retained in the plant tissue, plus
the moisture evaporated from the surface of the soil and the
vegetation.
Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration
• Weather
• Crop characteristics
• Management
• Environmental conditions
35
Water Requirement of Crops
36. July 12, 2005 NRCS IWM Training Course 36
Weather
– Solar radiation
– Air temperature
– Relative humidity
– Wind speed
37. July 12, 2005 NRCS IWM Training Course 37
Crop Characteristics
• Crop type and variety
– Height, roughness, stomatal control, reflectivity, ground
cover, rooting characteristics
• Stage of development
38. July 12, 2005 NRCS IWM Training Course 38
Management
• Irrigation method
• Irrigation management
• Cultivation practices
• Fertility management
• Disease and pest control
40. Determination of Consumptive Use (Cu)
(A) Direct Measurement
1. Lysimeter method: Cu is determined by irrigating a small plot
with no lateral inflow. Cu is the difference of water applied
and that collected through pervious bottom and collected in
pan/bottle.
2. Field experimental plots:
A more dependable method.
Water application with no runoff and deep percolation
Usual trend: initially, yield increases with application
then, yield decreases
Irrigation vs. yield is plotted.
Optimum Cu is breaking/peak point of the curve.
41. 3. Soil moisture studies:
suited where soil is faily uniform & GW is deep
soil moisture measured before and after each irrigation.
water consumed per day is calculated
rate of use vs. time is plotted
4. Irrigation methods:
area based determination of Cu
area under irrigated crops
Natural vegetation
water surface
bare land is calculated first
Cu is the integration of unit use of water multiplied with that
area, expressed in cu. m.
42. 5. Inflow and outflow studies:
for annual Cu of large areas
U = (I+P) + (Gs-Ge) – R
where
U = valley consumptive use
I = total inflow during the year
P = yearly precipitation on valley floor
Gs = ground storage at the beginning of the year
Ge = ground storage at the end of the year
R = yearly runoff
43. (B) Using Equations
• wide variety of empirical, semi-empirical, and
physically-based equations/models
• generally categorized as:
– temperature methods
– radiation methods
– combination methods
– pan evaporation methods
(1)Blaney-Criddle Formula
(2)Hargreaves Class A Pan Evaporation Method
46. Consumptive use Coefficients
* The lower values are for more humid areas and the higher values are
for more arid climates.
** Dependent upon mean monthly temperature and stage of growth of
crop.
47.
48. Values of monthly consumptive use calculated from the above formula
have been tabulated in the last column of Table.
Thus, Yearly Consumptive use = ∑Cu = 1750 mm = 1.75 m.
49. (2) Hargreaves Class A Pan Evaporation Method
Cu = K.Ep
Where
Ep = Pan evaporation (data obtained from Meteorological dept.); and
K = Crop factor for that period (Crop coefficient)
Values of Crop factor, K
50. Irrigation Efficiencies
Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water input, and is
usually expressed as percentage. Input minus output is nothing but
losses, and hence, if losses are more, output is less and, therefore,
efficiency is less. Hence, efficiency is inversely proportional to
the losses. Water is lost in irrigation during various processes and,
therefore, there are different kinds of irrigation efficiencies, as
given below :
Water conveyance Efficiency (ηc)
It is the ratio of the water delivered into the fields from the outlet
point of the channel, to the water pumped into the channel at the
starting point. It takes the conveyance or transit losses into
account.
r
f
c
W
W
=
=
reservoir
or
river
the
from
diverted
Water
farm
the
to
delivered
Water
η
51. Water application Efficiency (ηa)
It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone of
the crops to the quantity of water delivered into the field. It may
also be termed as farm efficiency, as it takes into account the water
lost in the farm.
( )
n
percolatio
Deep
;
runoff
Surface
where
farm
the
to
delivered
Water
n
irrrigatio
during
zone
root
in the
stored
Water
=
=
+
−
=
=
=
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
s
a
D
R
W
D
R
W
W
W
η
52. Water storage Efficiency (ηs)
It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during irrigation to
the water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation ( i.e. field
capacity – existing moisture content ).
n
s
s
W
W
=
=
irrigation
prior to
zone
root
in the
needed
Water
n
irrrigatio
during
zone
root
in the
stored
Water
η
53. Water-use Efficiency (ηu)
It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including leaching
water, to the quantity of water delivered.
d
u
u
W
W
=
=
farm
the
to
delivered
Water
ely
consumptiv
used
Water
η
54. 54
Irrigation Efficiencies
(v) Uniformity coefficient or Water distribution Efficiency (ηd)
The effectiveness of irrigation may also be measured by its water
distribution efficiency), which is defined below:
.
irrigation
during
stored
depth
average
from
stored
water
of
depth
in
deviation
numerical
average
y
;
irrigation
during
stored
water
of
depth
average
d
where
;
1
100
=
=
−
=
d
y
d
η
55. 55
Irrigation Efficiencies
The water distribution efficiency represents the extent to which the
water has penetrated to a uniform depth, throughout the field.
When the water has penetrated uniformly throughout the field, the
deviation from the mean depth is zero and water distribution
efficiency is 1.0
.
d
cu
cu
W
W
=
=
water
soil
zone
root
from
depleted
water
of
amount
Net
water
of
use
e
consumptiv
Normal
,
Efficiency
use
e
Consumptiv η
56. Penetration Depths 2 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.5
Deviation from Mean 0.24 0.14 0.04 -0.16 -0.26
Abs. Value of Dev. from Mean 0.24 0.14 0.04 0.16 0.26
57. 57
Irrigation Efficiencies
Example 10.17
A stream of 135 litres per second was diverted from a canal and
100 litres per second were delivered to the field. An area of 1.6
hectares was irrigated in 8 hours. The effective depth of root zone
was 1.8 m. the runoff loss in the field was 432 cu.m. The depth of
water penetration varied linearly from 1.8 m at the head end of
the field to 1.2 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding
capacity of the soil is 20 cm per meter depth of soil. Determine
the water conveyance efficiency, water application efficiency,
water storage efficiency and water distribution efficiency.
Irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50 percent
of the available moisture.
58. (i) Water conveyance efficiency,
(ii) Water application efficiency,
Water delivered to the plot
Solution:
%
74
100
135
100
100 =
×
=
×
=
d
W
f
W
c
η
100
×
=
f
W
s
W
a
η
cu.m
2880
1000
8
60
60
100 =
×
×
×
=
59. Water stored in the root zone
= 2880 -432 = 2448 cu.m
Water application efficiency
%
85
100
2880
2448 =
×
=
cm
n
W
s
W
18
100
50
36
-
36
zone
root
in the
required
Moisture
cm
36
1.8
20
zone
the
of
capacity
holding
Water
100
s
,
efficiency
storage
Water
(iii)
=
×
=
=
×
=
×
=
η
%
85
100
2880
2448
efficiency
storage
Water
.
2880
000
,
10
6
.
1
100
18
=
×
=
=
×
×
= m
cu
60. (iv) Water distribution efficiency
Numerical deviation from depth of penetration:
At upper end = 1.8 – 1.5 = 0.3
At lower end = 1.5 – 1.2 = 0.3
m
1.5
2
2
.
1
8
.
1
100
.
1
=
+
=
−
=
d
d
y
d
η
m
3
.
0
2
3
.
0
3
.
0
deviation,
numerical
Average =
+
=
y
%
80
100
.
5
.
1
3
.
0
1
=
−
=
d
η
61. DETERMINATION OF IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF
CROP
In order to determine the irrigation requirements of a certain crop, during
its base period, one should be acquainted with the following terms.
1. Effective Rainfall (Re): is part of the precipitation falling during the
precipitation period of the crop, that is available to meet the
evapotranspiration needs of the crop.
2. Consumptive Irrigation Requirements (CIR): is the amount of
irrigation water that is required to meet the evapotranspiration needs
of the crop (Cu) during its full growth.
CIR = Cu - Re
3. Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR): is the amount of irrigation
water required at the plot to meet the evapotranspiration needs of
water as well as other needs such as leaching etc. Thus
NIR = Cu –Re + water lost in deep percolation for the purposes
of leaching 61
Water Requirement of Crops
62. 4. Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR): is the amount of
irrigation water required to meet the net irrigation
requirements plus the water lost at the field (i.e in
percolation in the field water courses, field channels and
field application of water). If ηa is water application
efficiency:
FIR = NIR / ηa
5. Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR): is the sum of water
required to satisfy the field irrigation requirement and the
water lost as conveyance losses in distrbutaries up to the
field. If ηc is the water conveyance efficiency, then
GIR = FIR / ηc
62
Water Requirement of Crops
63. Problem, (p/73, Punmia):
Determine the Consumptive use (Cu) and Gross irrigation
requirement (GIR) for wheat crop from the following data:
63
Water Requirement of Crops
Dates and period
of growth
Pan Evaporation
Ep
(cm)
Consumptive use
coefficient,
K
Effective rainfall
Re
(cm)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Nov
3-30
15.8 0.3 -
Dec
1-31
13.1 0.77 0.8
Jan
1-31
12.8 0.90 0.6
Feb
1-29
15.0 0.76 -
March
1-12
16.2 0.58 -
64. 64
Irrigation Efficiencies
Refer similar example in S. K. Garg Book
Determination of Irrigation Requirements of Wheat
Period of Growth : 3rd Nov – 12 March( 131 Days), ηa = 0.68 , ηc = 0.8
Interval
No . of days
up to
mid point
of interval
% of
growing
season
Pan
Evaporation,
Ep
(cm)
Consumptive
use
coefficient,
K
Consumptive
use
Cu
= K . Ep
(cm)
Effective
rainfall
Re
(cm)
NIR
= Cu – Re
(cm)
FIR
= NIR/ηa
(cm)
GIR
= FIR /ηc
(cm)
(1) (2)
(3)
= (2) * 100
(4) (5)
(6)
= (4) * (5)
(7)
(8)
= (6) - (7)
(9)
= (8)/0.68
(10)
= (9)/0.8
Nov
3-30
14 11 15.8 0.3 4.7 - 4.7 6.9 8.6
Dec
1-31
44 33 13.1 0.77 10.1 0.8 9.3 13.7 17.1
Jan
1-31
75 57 12.8 0.90 11.5 0.6 10.9 16.0 20.0
Feb
1-29
105 80 15.0 0.76 11.4 - 11.4 16.8 21.0
March
1-12
125 95 16.2 0.58 9.4 - 9.4 13.8 17.3
∑ = 47.1 45.7 67.2 84.0