This document discusses various topics related to irrigation including:
1. The necessity of irrigation due to factors like low and uneven rainfall as well as growing multiple crops per year.
2. The advantages of irrigation such as fulfilling crop water requirements, improving yields and living standards, adding to national wealth and revenue, and enabling cash crops.
3. Key terms related to irrigation water requirements including consumptive use, net irrigation requirement, and gross irrigation requirement.
4. Factors that affect the duty of water applied such as irrigation methods, crop type, climate, canal conditions, water quality, soil characteristics, topography, and cultivation methods.
Engineering Irrigation Ch.2 Water Requirement of crops and soil-water relatio...Nasir Ahmad Aryanfar
This document discusses factors affecting crop water requirements and soil water relationships. It provides definitions of important terms related to irrigation engineering. The key factors affecting crop water needs are climate, soil type, method of irrigation, and topography. Soil can hold different types of water, including gravitational, capillary, and hygroscopic water. The relationship between duty, base period, and delta (depth of water applied) is also explained. Different soil types like alluvial, black, and red soils are described based on their formation and water retention properties.
Water resources engineering is an important branch of engineering that deals with water supply, irrigation, drainage, flood control, and water power. Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to land or soil for agricultural purposes. It is necessary in areas with insufficient rainfall to meet crop water requirements. Some key structures used in watershed management and water conservation include contour trenches, gully plugs, check dams, and gabion structures. Rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater and is important for recharging groundwater supplies.
Topics:
1, Introduction to Irrigation
2. Methods of Irrigation
3. Indian Agricultural Soils
4. Methods of Improving Soil Fertility & Crop Rotation
5. Soil-Water-Plant Relationship
6. Duty and Delta
7. Depth and Frequency of Irrigation
8. Irrigation Efficiency and Water Logging
This document discusses water logging and its causes and effects. It defines water logging as when the productivity of agricultural land is affected by a high water table. Key points include:
- Water logging occurs when there is too much water in the root zone of plants, killing bacteria that produce nutrients and reducing crop yields.
- The depth of the water table affects different crops, such as wheat being affected at 0.9-1.2m and sugarcane at 0.3m.
- Causes of water logging include over irrigation, seepage from canals and reservoirs, inadequate drainage, obstruction of water flows, soil type, and excessive rainfall.
- Effects are difficult cultivation, growth of
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, scope of irrigation engineering, benefits and ill-effects of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and concepts like duty and delta. Key topics covered include different irrigation methods based on water availability and source, soil water classifications, factors affecting crop water demand, and concepts used to measure irrigation water supply and demand.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill-effects. It covers types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, irrigation development in India, and key concepts like duty and delta. Engineering, agriculture, and management aspects are described. Factors affecting evapotranspiration and methods to measure it are also summarized.
Duty of water refers to the relationship between the amount of irrigation water and the area of crop that can be fully matured with that water. It is expressed as the area irrigated per unit rate of flow, depth of water, or stored water volume. The duty is affected by soil characteristics, climate, rainfall, crop type, topography, irrigation method, and other factors. Improving duty involves proper plowing, suitable irrigation methods, canal lining, minimizing idle canal length, good water quality, crop rotation, and volumetric water assessment. Duty delta represents the total water depth required over the base period and is calculated by dividing the duty by the number of days in the base period. Sample problems are provided to calculate
Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is an irrigation practice for rice that saves water and reduces greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining yields. It involves periodically drying and re-flooding rice fields. In Bangladesh, boro rice is fully irrigated while aman rice is partly irrigated. Research shows AWD can save 15-30% of the estimated 3,000-5,000 liters of water needed to produce one kilogram of rice, without lowering yields. The practice involves irrigating until the water table is 20cm below ground, then allowing the field to partially dry before re-flooding. This technique is being validated in Bangladesh and could help conserve irrigation water and reduce environmental impacts.
Engineering Irrigation Ch.2 Water Requirement of crops and soil-water relatio...Nasir Ahmad Aryanfar
This document discusses factors affecting crop water requirements and soil water relationships. It provides definitions of important terms related to irrigation engineering. The key factors affecting crop water needs are climate, soil type, method of irrigation, and topography. Soil can hold different types of water, including gravitational, capillary, and hygroscopic water. The relationship between duty, base period, and delta (depth of water applied) is also explained. Different soil types like alluvial, black, and red soils are described based on their formation and water retention properties.
Water resources engineering is an important branch of engineering that deals with water supply, irrigation, drainage, flood control, and water power. Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to land or soil for agricultural purposes. It is necessary in areas with insufficient rainfall to meet crop water requirements. Some key structures used in watershed management and water conservation include contour trenches, gully plugs, check dams, and gabion structures. Rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater and is important for recharging groundwater supplies.
Topics:
1, Introduction to Irrigation
2. Methods of Irrigation
3. Indian Agricultural Soils
4. Methods of Improving Soil Fertility & Crop Rotation
5. Soil-Water-Plant Relationship
6. Duty and Delta
7. Depth and Frequency of Irrigation
8. Irrigation Efficiency and Water Logging
This document discusses water logging and its causes and effects. It defines water logging as when the productivity of agricultural land is affected by a high water table. Key points include:
- Water logging occurs when there is too much water in the root zone of plants, killing bacteria that produce nutrients and reducing crop yields.
- The depth of the water table affects different crops, such as wheat being affected at 0.9-1.2m and sugarcane at 0.3m.
- Causes of water logging include over irrigation, seepage from canals and reservoirs, inadequate drainage, obstruction of water flows, soil type, and excessive rainfall.
- Effects are difficult cultivation, growth of
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, scope of irrigation engineering, benefits and ill-effects of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and concepts like duty and delta. Key topics covered include different irrigation methods based on water availability and source, soil water classifications, factors affecting crop water demand, and concepts used to measure irrigation water supply and demand.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill-effects. It covers types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, irrigation development in India, and key concepts like duty and delta. Engineering, agriculture, and management aspects are described. Factors affecting evapotranspiration and methods to measure it are also summarized.
Duty of water refers to the relationship between the amount of irrigation water and the area of crop that can be fully matured with that water. It is expressed as the area irrigated per unit rate of flow, depth of water, or stored water volume. The duty is affected by soil characteristics, climate, rainfall, crop type, topography, irrigation method, and other factors. Improving duty involves proper plowing, suitable irrigation methods, canal lining, minimizing idle canal length, good water quality, crop rotation, and volumetric water assessment. Duty delta represents the total water depth required over the base period and is calculated by dividing the duty by the number of days in the base period. Sample problems are provided to calculate
Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is an irrigation practice for rice that saves water and reduces greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining yields. It involves periodically drying and re-flooding rice fields. In Bangladesh, boro rice is fully irrigated while aman rice is partly irrigated. Research shows AWD can save 15-30% of the estimated 3,000-5,000 liters of water needed to produce one kilogram of rice, without lowering yields. The practice involves irrigating until the water table is 20cm below ground, then allowing the field to partially dry before re-flooding. This technique is being validated in Bangladesh and could help conserve irrigation water and reduce environmental impacts.
Principles of irrigation by Dr Thomas Abraham_Course Code_Chapters 1 to 5__26...Ambo University (Ethiopia)
Irrigation involves applying water to crops to supplement rainfall and meet crop water needs. The key objectives of irrigation are to ensure sufficient soil moisture for plant growth, provide drought protection for crops, and create a favorable environment for plants. Irrigation maximizes crop yields and land productivity, ensuring food security and promoting regional economic development through agriculture and related industries.
This document discusses irrigation and crop water requirements. It outlines several advantages of irrigation including preventing disease and weeds, enabling cash crops, improving groundwater storage, and increasing crop yields. Some disadvantages are excessive water leakage causing marshes, waterlogging from high water tables, lower temperatures, and land/water pollution. Crop water requirement depends on factors like crop type, growth stage, soil properties, climate, and agronomic practices. It is the total water needed from sowing to harvest and includes transpiration, evaporation, and water for plant metabolism. The factors affecting consumptive water use by crops are also summarized.
Water is essential for plant growth and agriculture relies heavily on irrigation. The document discusses water management in horticulture, including the importance and functions of water in plants. It also covers the history of irrigation in India, different irrigation methods, the impact of moisture stress on crops, and strategies for scientific irrigation management. Key crops irrigated in India are also listed.
Field capacity refers to the amount of water in soil after excess water has drained away by gravity. It typically occurs 2-3 days after rainfall or irrigation. There are three types of water in soil: gravitational, capillary, and hygroscopic. Factors like soil texture, structure, organic matter, temperature and depth of wetting influence field capacity. Field capacity is important for plant growth as it provides soluble nutrients and regulates soil temperature and microbial activity. It can be measured using pressure-based methods that determine water content at -33 kPa tension or flux-based methods using hydraulic conductivity functions.
1) Water harvesting refers to collecting rainwater runoff from a catchment area to provide water for crop production, domestic use, livestock, and other purposes. It helps address water scarcity issues in arid regions.
2) Common water harvesting techniques used in Sudan include family reservoirs excavated in tree trunks, check dams along streams, micro catchments around plant roots, terracing, contour trenches, and large communal hafirs for storing seasonal runoff.
3) Roof rainwater harvesting is also practiced, where rainwater is collected from rooftops and stored in tanks for household use. Water harvesting has been an important strategy in Sudan since the 1940s to improve food and water security.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses types of irrigation based on water application and duration. It also defines important terms related to irrigation engineering and concepts like culturable command area, water tables, and types of groundwater.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. It then discusses the necessity of irrigation due to insufficient or uneven rainfall. Benefits include increased crop yields and economic development, while ill effects can include rising water tables and loss of land. The document classifies irrigation systems and projects in India as major, medium or minor. It also examines soil-water relationships, including water holding capacity, field capacity, and wilting point.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill effects, and development of irrigation in India. It describes the course goals to introduce concepts of soil, water, plant interactions and irrigation/drainage design. Key terms are defined, such as culturable command area. Different types of irrigation systems are classified, including flow and lift systems. Soil water relationships are also examined, including classifications of soil water and how water is held in soils.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses topics such as water holding capacity, field capacity, wilting point, and available soil water as they relate to plant growth. Types of groundwater and levels of water in soils are also explained.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses topics such as water content in soil, factors that influence water holding capacity, transpiration, and the relationships between soil properties, water retention, and plant growth.
Introduction to irrigation and drainageMulenge Peter
Irrigation is any process other than natural precipitation, which supplies water artificially to the soil to make up the deficiency of moisture under natural conditions for the profitable growth of crops, which otherwise would not be assured.
The irrigation process involves investigation, planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of structures and channels for the proper conveyance of water from the source to the point of application.
This document provides an overview of fundamental concepts in irrigation, including definitions of key terms, factors that influence irrigation efficiency, different irrigation methods, and crop water requirements. It defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to supply moisture for plant growth. Surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and drip irrigation are described as the main methods. Critical growth stages and how crop water needs vary throughout growth are also covered.
The document discusses water requirements for crops and irrigation concepts. It provides definitions for key terms like gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, base period, delta, duty of water, and irrigation requirements for various crops. It lists the average delta values for important crops in Pakistan and discusses factors like water depth, number of irrigations, and seed and yield quantities for different kharif and rabi season crops.
The document discusses soil constituents and their proportions, including minerals, organic matter, water, and air. It describes the mineral components of soil in detail, including primary and secondary minerals. It also explains concepts such as soil water potential, classes of soil water, field capacity, permanent wilting point, and available moisture. The water requirements of crops are defined as the total quantity and timing of water needed from sowing to harvest, which can vary by crop and location. Irrigation may be necessary where rainfall is insufficient or unreliable to meet crop water needs.
1. Irrigation management involves scheduling irrigation appropriately based on soil type, crop water requirements, and other factors to efficiently use water resources.
2. Common methods of surface irrigation include border irrigation, check basin irrigation, and ridges and furrows irrigation which involve dividing fields into strips or basins and flooding or furrowing the land.
3. Factors considered in irrigation scheduling include soil type, crop water needs, available water supply, and allowing sufficient drying time between irrigations based on the crop's water depletion level. Monitoring soil moisture, plant conditions, and pan evaporation can help determine irrigation timing.
This document discusses dryland agriculture, which refers to growing crops entirely through rainfall. It can be divided into dry farming (<750mm rainfall), dryland farming (750-1150mm rainfall), and rainfed farming (>1150mm rainfall). Dry farming occurs in arid regions and has frequent crop failures due to low and variable rainfall. Dryland farming occurs in semi-arid regions and has less frequent crop failures. Rainfed farming occurs in humid regions and has rare crop failures. The document also discusses various irrigation techniques like surface, localized, and subsurface irrigation that help supplement rainfall for crop growth.
Soil, Plant, water and atmosphere relationshipgtc21187
1. Soil and water are vital resources for plant growth. Soil provides nutrients and support for roots while water transports nutrients and helps plants grow.
2. The water retention properties of soil like bulk density and particle size determine how much water the soil can hold. Generally, finer textured soils like clay retain more water than coarser soils like sand.
3. The soil-water retention curve shows the relationship between soil water content and pressure head. It allows determining how much water the soil holds at different tensions.
The document discusses various practices for soil moisture conservation in dryland farming areas. It describes 17 techniques including conservation tillage, mulching, crop rotation, green manuring, deep tillage, compartmental bunding, retention ditches, contour farming, stone lines, planting pits, and semi-circular bunds. These techniques aim to increase water infiltration and retention in soil by reducing runoff, impounding surface water, and modifying land configurations to harvest rainfall where it falls. Properly conserving soil moisture through these methods can help ensure sustainable agricultural production in dry regions with limited water availability.
Magnitude measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake at its source, using the Richter Scale. Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by an earthquake at a certain location, using the Mercalli Intensity Scale. Magnitude is a quantitative measure while intensity is qualitative and accounts for location and building resilience. Higher magnitudes indicate a more powerful quake with exponentially greater energy release.
The document discusses various materials used in highway construction, including soil, stone aggregates, bituminous mixes, and Portland cement. It focuses on the properties and classification of soil, which serves as the base material for embankments and subgrades. Various classification systems are described, including those based on grain size, moisture content, liquid limit, plastic limit, and group index. Compaction and testing of soil, including CBR and plate bearing tests, are also summarized to evaluate the soil's strength and suitability for supporting highway loads.
Principles of irrigation by Dr Thomas Abraham_Course Code_Chapters 1 to 5__26...Ambo University (Ethiopia)
Irrigation involves applying water to crops to supplement rainfall and meet crop water needs. The key objectives of irrigation are to ensure sufficient soil moisture for plant growth, provide drought protection for crops, and create a favorable environment for plants. Irrigation maximizes crop yields and land productivity, ensuring food security and promoting regional economic development through agriculture and related industries.
This document discusses irrigation and crop water requirements. It outlines several advantages of irrigation including preventing disease and weeds, enabling cash crops, improving groundwater storage, and increasing crop yields. Some disadvantages are excessive water leakage causing marshes, waterlogging from high water tables, lower temperatures, and land/water pollution. Crop water requirement depends on factors like crop type, growth stage, soil properties, climate, and agronomic practices. It is the total water needed from sowing to harvest and includes transpiration, evaporation, and water for plant metabolism. The factors affecting consumptive water use by crops are also summarized.
Water is essential for plant growth and agriculture relies heavily on irrigation. The document discusses water management in horticulture, including the importance and functions of water in plants. It also covers the history of irrigation in India, different irrigation methods, the impact of moisture stress on crops, and strategies for scientific irrigation management. Key crops irrigated in India are also listed.
Field capacity refers to the amount of water in soil after excess water has drained away by gravity. It typically occurs 2-3 days after rainfall or irrigation. There are three types of water in soil: gravitational, capillary, and hygroscopic. Factors like soil texture, structure, organic matter, temperature and depth of wetting influence field capacity. Field capacity is important for plant growth as it provides soluble nutrients and regulates soil temperature and microbial activity. It can be measured using pressure-based methods that determine water content at -33 kPa tension or flux-based methods using hydraulic conductivity functions.
1) Water harvesting refers to collecting rainwater runoff from a catchment area to provide water for crop production, domestic use, livestock, and other purposes. It helps address water scarcity issues in arid regions.
2) Common water harvesting techniques used in Sudan include family reservoirs excavated in tree trunks, check dams along streams, micro catchments around plant roots, terracing, contour trenches, and large communal hafirs for storing seasonal runoff.
3) Roof rainwater harvesting is also practiced, where rainwater is collected from rooftops and stored in tanks for household use. Water harvesting has been an important strategy in Sudan since the 1940s to improve food and water security.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses types of irrigation based on water application and duration. It also defines important terms related to irrigation engineering and concepts like culturable command area, water tables, and types of groundwater.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. It then discusses the necessity of irrigation due to insufficient or uneven rainfall. Benefits include increased crop yields and economic development, while ill effects can include rising water tables and loss of land. The document classifies irrigation systems and projects in India as major, medium or minor. It also examines soil-water relationships, including water holding capacity, field capacity, and wilting point.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill effects, and development of irrigation in India. It describes the course goals to introduce concepts of soil, water, plant interactions and irrigation/drainage design. Key terms are defined, such as culturable command area. Different types of irrigation systems are classified, including flow and lift systems. Soil water relationships are also examined, including classifications of soil water and how water is held in soils.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses topics such as water holding capacity, field capacity, wilting point, and available soil water as they relate to plant growth. Types of groundwater and levels of water in soils are also explained.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses topics such as water content in soil, factors that influence water holding capacity, transpiration, and the relationships between soil properties, water retention, and plant growth.
Introduction to irrigation and drainageMulenge Peter
Irrigation is any process other than natural precipitation, which supplies water artificially to the soil to make up the deficiency of moisture under natural conditions for the profitable growth of crops, which otherwise would not be assured.
The irrigation process involves investigation, planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of structures and channels for the proper conveyance of water from the source to the point of application.
This document provides an overview of fundamental concepts in irrigation, including definitions of key terms, factors that influence irrigation efficiency, different irrigation methods, and crop water requirements. It defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to supply moisture for plant growth. Surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and drip irrigation are described as the main methods. Critical growth stages and how crop water needs vary throughout growth are also covered.
The document discusses water requirements for crops and irrigation concepts. It provides definitions for key terms like gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, base period, delta, duty of water, and irrigation requirements for various crops. It lists the average delta values for important crops in Pakistan and discusses factors like water depth, number of irrigations, and seed and yield quantities for different kharif and rabi season crops.
The document discusses soil constituents and their proportions, including minerals, organic matter, water, and air. It describes the mineral components of soil in detail, including primary and secondary minerals. It also explains concepts such as soil water potential, classes of soil water, field capacity, permanent wilting point, and available moisture. The water requirements of crops are defined as the total quantity and timing of water needed from sowing to harvest, which can vary by crop and location. Irrigation may be necessary where rainfall is insufficient or unreliable to meet crop water needs.
1. Irrigation management involves scheduling irrigation appropriately based on soil type, crop water requirements, and other factors to efficiently use water resources.
2. Common methods of surface irrigation include border irrigation, check basin irrigation, and ridges and furrows irrigation which involve dividing fields into strips or basins and flooding or furrowing the land.
3. Factors considered in irrigation scheduling include soil type, crop water needs, available water supply, and allowing sufficient drying time between irrigations based on the crop's water depletion level. Monitoring soil moisture, plant conditions, and pan evaporation can help determine irrigation timing.
This document discusses dryland agriculture, which refers to growing crops entirely through rainfall. It can be divided into dry farming (<750mm rainfall), dryland farming (750-1150mm rainfall), and rainfed farming (>1150mm rainfall). Dry farming occurs in arid regions and has frequent crop failures due to low and variable rainfall. Dryland farming occurs in semi-arid regions and has less frequent crop failures. Rainfed farming occurs in humid regions and has rare crop failures. The document also discusses various irrigation techniques like surface, localized, and subsurface irrigation that help supplement rainfall for crop growth.
Soil, Plant, water and atmosphere relationshipgtc21187
1. Soil and water are vital resources for plant growth. Soil provides nutrients and support for roots while water transports nutrients and helps plants grow.
2. The water retention properties of soil like bulk density and particle size determine how much water the soil can hold. Generally, finer textured soils like clay retain more water than coarser soils like sand.
3. The soil-water retention curve shows the relationship between soil water content and pressure head. It allows determining how much water the soil holds at different tensions.
The document discusses various practices for soil moisture conservation in dryland farming areas. It describes 17 techniques including conservation tillage, mulching, crop rotation, green manuring, deep tillage, compartmental bunding, retention ditches, contour farming, stone lines, planting pits, and semi-circular bunds. These techniques aim to increase water infiltration and retention in soil by reducing runoff, impounding surface water, and modifying land configurations to harvest rainfall where it falls. Properly conserving soil moisture through these methods can help ensure sustainable agricultural production in dry regions with limited water availability.
Magnitude measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake at its source, using the Richter Scale. Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by an earthquake at a certain location, using the Mercalli Intensity Scale. Magnitude is a quantitative measure while intensity is qualitative and accounts for location and building resilience. Higher magnitudes indicate a more powerful quake with exponentially greater energy release.
The document discusses various materials used in highway construction, including soil, stone aggregates, bituminous mixes, and Portland cement. It focuses on the properties and classification of soil, which serves as the base material for embankments and subgrades. Various classification systems are described, including those based on grain size, moisture content, liquid limit, plastic limit, and group index. Compaction and testing of soil, including CBR and plate bearing tests, are also summarized to evaluate the soil's strength and suitability for supporting highway loads.
Design a suitable splice and bolted connection for extending a column of rolled steel cross section ISHB200@40 kg/m. The column is to support service axial compressive load, bending moment and shear force of 1000 KN, 50 KN and 90 KN respectively. The column ends are smooth finished. Ordinary bolts of M20 grade 4.6 are available for splicing.
Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the improvement of
traffic performance on road network and terminals through systematic traffic studies,
scientific analysis and engineering applications which provide safe, rapid, efficient
convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods.
• Traffic engineering includes planning and geometric design on one hand and
regulation and control on the other.
• The road traffic is composed of different categories of vehicular traffic and pedestrian
traffic. Each category of vehicular traffic has two components, the human element as
the driver and the machine as the vehicle.
Transportation engineering, primarily involves planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, and even space transportation.
Self-healing concrete is a concrete that repairs cracks through a biological reaction caused by bacteria in the concrete. When cracks form and air and water enter, bacteria produce limestone to fill the cracks. This allows the concrete to heal itself over time. The bacteria remain dormant for over 200 years but become active when cracks form. Self-healing concrete improves durability and reduces corrosion compared to normal concrete, though it has 20% lower strength and higher costs. Potential applications include tunnels, bridges, and marine structures.
SIFCON (Slurry Infiltrated Fibre Concrete) is a unique construction material with high strength and ductility due to a phenomenon called "fiber-lock". It consists of a cementitious slurry matrix reinforced with steel fibers. The slurry has no coarse aggregates but a high cement and fine sand content. Factors like slurry strength, fiber volume and alignment affect its properties. SIFCON has excellent durability and energy absorption and is used in applications like pavements, bridges, and blast-resistant structures.
The document discusses mix proportioning for M25 grade concrete according to IS 10262:2019. It provides the stipulations and test data for materials used. The target strength is calculated as 31.6 N/mm2. The water-cement ratio is selected as 0.46. The proportions are calculated as 418 kg/m3 cement, 192 kg/m3 water, 657 kg/m3 fine aggregate, and 1127 kg/m3 coarse aggregate. Adjustments are made to account for moisture in dry aggregates. The presentation emphasizes using supplementary cementitious materials and admixtures to improve strength and durability.
The document provides an overview of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), including its history, types of fibres used, mechanical properties, factors affecting properties, advantages, disadvantages, applications, and mixing/curing processes. Some key points:
- FRC has been used for over 3,500 years, starting with straw reinforcement in bricks. Modern usage began in the early 1900s with asbestos fibres and expanded in the 1950s with steel, glass, and synthetic fibres.
- Fibres improve properties like tensile strength, ductility, crack resistance, impact resistance, and durability. Different fibre types include steel, glass, carbon, natural fibres, and synthetics.
- Factors
This document provides an overview of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods for concrete, including penetration tests, rebound hammer tests, pullout tests, and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests. It describes the procedures and objectives of each method. NDT methods allow evaluation of existing concrete structures to assess strength, durability, and quality without damaging the concrete. They provide rapid, on-site data to inform decisions about construction quality control, reinforcement location, and crack/defect detection. The document also discusses factors that influence NDT results and the cost-effectiveness of these non-destructive methods compared to destructive testing of concrete.
Formwork is used as a temporary mold for pouring concrete that will harden into the desired structural shape. There are various types of formwork classified by material (timber, plywood, steel, aluminum, plastic, magnesium) or purpose (slab formwork, beam formwork, column formwork). Proper formwork design is important to withstand loads, retain shape, prevent leakage, and allow removal without damage to concrete. The order and method of removing formwork is also important for safety.
High performance concrete (HPC) is a type of concrete mixture that possesses high workability, high strength, low permeability, and resistance to chemical attack. HPC uses carefully selected, high-quality ingredients and optimized mixture designs to produce concrete with a low water-cement ratio between 0.20 to 0.45. Plasticizers are used to make HPC fluid and workable. HPC exceeds the properties and constructability of normal concrete. It has been used in tunnels, bridges, tall buildings, shotcrete repair, poles, parking garages, and agricultural applications due to its strength, durability, and high modulus of elasticity.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapte...University of Maribor
Slides from talk presenting:
Aleš Zamuda: Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapter and Networking.
Presentation at IcETRAN 2024 session:
"Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS
Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation"
IEEE Slovenia GRSS
IEEE Serbia and Montenegro MTT-S
IEEE Slovenia CIS
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
ACEP Magazine edition 4th launched on 05.06.2024Rahul
This document provides information about the third edition of the magazine "Sthapatya" published by the Association of Civil Engineers (Practicing) Aurangabad. It includes messages from current and past presidents of ACEP, memories and photos from past ACEP events, information on life time achievement awards given by ACEP, and a technical article on concrete maintenance, repairs and strengthening. The document highlights activities of ACEP and provides a technical educational article for members.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
2. Necessity of Irrigation
• Less Rainfall
• Non-uniform Rainfall
• Growing a number of crops during a year
• Growing perennial crops
• Commercial crop with additional water
• Controlled water supply
3. Advantages of Irrigation:
1. For proper nourishment of crops certain amount of water is required. If
rainfall is insufficient there will be deficiency in fulfillment of water
requirement. Irrigation tries to remove this deficiency caused due to
inadequate rainfall. Thus, irrigation comes to rescue in dry years.
2. Irrigation improves the yield of crops and makes people prosperous. The
living standards of the people is thereby improved.
3. Irrigation also adds to the wealth of the country in two ways. Firstly as
bumper crops are produced due to irrigation it makes country self-sufficient
in food requirements. Secondly as the irrigation water is taxed when it is
supplied to the cultivators, it adds to the revenue.
4. Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to
the cultivators than the ordinary crops they might have grown in absence of
irrigation. Fruit gardens, sugarcane, potato, tobacco etc., are the cash crops.
4. 5. Protection from famine: The availability of irrigation
facilities in any region ensures protection against failure of
crops or famine due to drought. In regions without irrigation,
farmers have to depend only on rains for growing crops and
since the rains may not provide enough rainfall required for
crop growing every year, the farmers are always faced with a
risk.
6. The falls which come across the irrigation channels can be
utilized for producing hydroelectric power.
7. Domestic advantages should not be overlooked. Irrigation
facilitates bathing, cattle watering etc., and improves
freshwater circulation.
8. Irrigation improves the groundwater storage as water lost
due to seepage adds to the groundwater storage.
5. Disadvantages of
Irrigation:
1 Excessive seepage and leakage of water forms marshes and
ponds all along the channels. The marshes and the ponds in
course of time become the colonies of the mosquito, which gives
rise to a disease like malaria.
2. Excessive seepage into the ground raises the water-table and
this in turn completely saturates the crop root-zone. It causes
waterlogging of that area.
3. It lowers the temperature and makes the locality damp due to
the presence of irrigation water.
4. Under irrigation canal system valuable residential and
industrial land is lost.
5. Initial cost of irrigation project is very high and thereby the
cultivators have to pay more taxes in the form of levy.
6. Irrigation works become obstacles in the way of free drainage
of water during rainy season and thus results in submerging
standing crops and even villages.
6. Functions of irrigation
water
Water and nutrients are the most important requirements of plants.
Following are the main functions of irrigation water :
1. Water dissolves the nutrients, forms a solution of the nutrients and
which are absorbed by the roots and thus water acts as a nutrient
carrier. It acts as a solvent for the nutrients.
2. The irrigation water supplies moisture which is essential for the life
of bacteria which are beneficial to plant growth.
3. Irrigation water supplied moisture which is essential for the
metabolism within the plant leading to plant growth.
4. Some essential salts present in soil react in presence of water to
produce nourishing food products.
5. Water cools the soil and atmosphere, thus creating a healthy
environment for plant growth.
6. It softens the tillage pans (area to be irrigated).
7. Suitability of water for
irrigation:
In order to perform the required functions, for optimum
growth of plants, the water may be turned as unfit if,
1. Sediment concentration is excessive
2. Total concentration of salts of sodium (Na), calcium,
magnesium and potassium is excessive.
3. Percentage of sodium ions to that of other ions is
excessive.
4. Percentage of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium
becomes excessive.
5. Bacteria harmful to plant growth are present.
6. Contains chemicals toxic to plants, animals and humans.
8. Functions of the Soil:
Soil provide the following for the life and
development of plants
1. Anchor for plants roots
2. Water for transpiration and
metabolism
3. Minerals and nutrients for metabolism
4. Oxygen for metabolism
9. Classification of soils
1. Classification according to age of formation: In
this method soil has subdivided as
a) Youth full: Soil which is fully pervious
b) Mature soil: Soil which is less permeable
c) Senile Soil: Soil which has little or no
productivity. It has become hard and
impermeable
10. 2. Classification according to geological forces of formation
a) Residual soil: Soil formed by disintegration of rocks by various actions in the
same place.
b) Alluvial soil: soils formed by deposition of water borne (carried by water)
material.
c) Eolian soil: Solis formed by deposition of wind action.
d) Colluvial soil: soils formed by deposing by rain water below foot hills.
e) Glacial soil: Solis formed by transportation and deposition by glaciers.
f) Volcanic ash: Ash deposits due to volcanic eruptions.
g) Solis of aggradations: soils formed accumulation in layers.
h) Soils of degradation: soils which are continuously zoning out due to erosion.
i) Pan clay pan: Impervious soils deposited on hard layers to form new set of
soils & cemented by calcium carbonate, Iron oxide, silica etc.
11. 3. Classification based on salt content
a) Ped-O- Cal: Soil rich in calcium
carbonate b) Ped-Al-Fer: Soil rich in
aluminum and iron salts
c) Humus: Soil rich in organic matter or
salts.
12. Classification of Indian soil
a) Alluvial soils: These are soils formed due to deposition by water in Indo-
Gangetic plains. These soils are very fertile and also absorb good amount
of rainfall.
b) Red soil: It is a residual soil which is left over in a same place as a result of
decay of underlying parent rock & covering parent rock. These have light
texture and good porosity varying fertility and low soluble salt content.
Such soils are found in central and peninsular India.
c) Lateral soil: These are residual soils commonly found in coastal region.
These are usually porous and well drained & they do not contain common
nutrients required for plant growth in sufficient quality.
d) Black soil: The texture of this varies from clay to loamy
13. Classes of soil water:
Water in the soil may be present in the following forms
1. Hygroscopic water: 2. Capillary water 3. Gravitational water
Hygroscopic water: When an over dried soil sample is exposed to
atmosphere, the soil absorbs some amount of water from the atmosphere.
This water absorbed by the soil is called hygroscopic water and it is not
capable of moving either under capillary action or gravitation.
Capillary water: It is that part of water in excess of hygroscopic water, which
exists in the pore spaces (voids) of the soil due to molecular attraction.
Gravitational water is that part of water in excess of hygroscopic and
capillary water which will drain out under favorable conditions.
14. Soil Moisture Constants
Saturation Capacity
Field Capacity
Permanent wilting point
Temporary Wilting
Ultimate wilting
Available Moisture
Readily available moisture
50
15. Depth and frequency of irrigation:
y = (Fc − Min moisture content). γs . d /
γw
16. Find the field capacity of a soil for the following data. Depth of root zone = 2m Existing
moisture content = 5% Dry density of soil =15 kN/m3 Water applied to soil = 600 m
Water lost due to evaporation and deep percolation = 10% Area of land irrigated = 900 m
Total water applied = 600 m3
Loss of water = 10 %
Amount of water retained in soil = (600 X 90 )/100 = 540 m3
Weight of water retained in the soil = 540 m3 x γw = 540 x 9.81 = 5297.4 kN
Total weight of dry soil = (V x γd ) = 900 x 2 x 15 =27000 kN
Percentage of water retained in soil = (5297.4 X 100)/ 27000 = 19.62%
Field capacity = Available water + Existing or Hydroscopic water = 19.62% + 5% = 24.62%
17. A loam silt soil has field capacity of 25% and permanent wilting coefficient of 10%. The dry unit weight of soil is
1.5g/cc. If the depth of root zone is 0.75m, determine the storage capacity of the soil. If the moisture content
drops to 14% determine the depth of irrigation water to be applied to maintain available water, also take
application efficiency as 75%.
a. Storage capacity of soil is nothing but the depth of available water in root zone
y = (Fc − PWPt). γs . d /γw
y = (25 − 10 )X 1.5 X 0.75 X (1 /100)
y = 0.169 m
b. Depth of irrigation water required to raise moisture level from minimum level to field
capacity y = (Fc − Min moisture content). γs . d /γw
Y=0.124
c. Depth of irrigation water to be applied at the field = Depth of irrigation water required /Water application
efficiency
= 0.124 /0.75 = 0.165m.
18. Consumptive use of water:
It is defined as the total quantity of water used by plants in transpiration; tissues build up, evaporation
from adjacent or exposed soil in an area at any specific time.
The following factors affect the consumptive use of water,
1. Direct evaporation from soil
2. Relative humidity of air 3. Wind velocity 4.
Temperature 5. Precipitation 6. Hours of the day
7. Intensity of sunlight 8. Soil and topography 9.
Type of crop 10. Cropping pattern 11. Method of
irrigation 12. Nature of plant leaves 13. Cropping
season
19. Water Requirement of crops
Water requirement of a crop is the total quantity of water
required by the crop from the time it is sown to the time it is
harvested. Different crops require different amounts of water.
It is essential to maintain the quantity of water (readily
available moisture) in soil by supplying water more or less at
fixed intervals throughout the plant growth. The growth of
crops is retarded, if the moisture content becomes, excessive
or deficient. Excessive soil moisture results in filling the pore
spaces and there by drawing out the air in root zone, which is
also essential for plant growth. In case of moisture deficiency,
plants require extra energy to extract the moisture in soil.
As seen from the above graph, in a soil there exists a moisture content known as optimum
moisture content at which plants grow most rapidly. OMC is usually lesser than field capacity for
all crops in any soil. Hence, it is required to maintain OMC by supplying water at regular
intervals.
20. The amount of irrigation water applied should be
such that the moisture content is raised to the
field capacity. The moisture content in soil reduces
due to consumptive use by plants. However, the
moisture content should not be allowed to fall
below lower limit of readily available moisture.
When the moisture content reaches the lower
limit of readily available moisture, water should be
supplied by irrigation method to rise it to the field
capacity or optimum moisture content.
23. Factors affecting duty:
1. Methods and systems of irrigation: Perennial system of irrigation has more duty of water than
inundation irrigation system the loss of water by deep percolation is minimum in the first case.
In flow irrigation by channels the duty is less as conveyance losses are more. In lift irrigation the
lands to be irrigated are very near to the source of water than any surface irrigation method.
2. Type of Crop: Different crops require varying quantities of water and therefore duty of water
varies from crop to crop. Crops requiring large quantity of water have lower duty than crops
requiring lesser quantity of water.
3. Climate conditions of the area: The climatic condition such as wind, temperature, humidity and
rainfall affect the duty of water. At high temperature losses due to evaporation and
transpiration are more and hence duty decreases. At higher wind velocity, rate of evaporation
and transpiration are more thereby, duty decreased. But in humid conditions evaporations and
transpiration losses are minimum, there by duty increases.
4. Canal conditions: In earthen canals, seepage losses are high resulting low duty. If canal is lined,
losses are minimum and hence duty increases. If the length of the canal is very large before it
reaches the irrigation fields (as in hilly areas) the duty of water decreases.
24. 5. Quality of Water: If water contains harmful salts and alkali contents, then
more water is to be applied liberally to leach out these salts and in turn duty
of water decreases.
6. Characteristics of soil and subsoil in field and canals: If the soil and subsoil
of the field and canals are made of coarse grained soils the seepage and
percolation losses are more and hence the duty of water decreases.
7. Topography of land: If the area to be irrigated is level, uniform water
application is possible which will result in economical views and hence duty
of water increases.
8. Method of Cultivation: If the land is properly tilled up to the required
depth and soil is made loose before irrigation, water retaining capacity of soil
increases. This reduces the number of watering or frequency of watering and
hence duty increases.
25. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
Efficient use of irrigation water is an obligation of each user as
well as of the planners Even under the best method of
irrigation, not all the water applied during an irrigation & is
stored in the root zone. In general, efficiency is the ratio of
water output to the water input and is expressed as
percentage. The objective of efficiency concepts is to show
when improvements can be made which will result in more
efficient irrigation. The following are the various types of
irrigation efficiencies : (i) water conveyance efficiency, (u)
water application efficiency, (Ui) water use efficiency, (iv)
water storage efficiency, (v) water distribution efficiency and
(vi) consumptive use efficiency.
29. DETERMINATION OF IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS
In order to determine the irrigation requirements of certain crop, during its base period, the
following terms are required :
(i) Effective Rainfall (Re)
Effective rainfall is that part of the precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is
available to meet the evapo-transpiration needs of the crop
(ii) Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR)
Consumptive irrigation requirement is defined as the amount of irrigation water that is required to meet
the evapo-transpiration needs of the crop during its full growth.
Therefore, CIR = CU-Re where Cu is the consumptive use of water.
30. iii) Net Irrigation Requirement (NCR) Net irrigation requirement is defined as the amount
of irrigation water required at the plot to meet the evapo-transpiration needs of water as
well as other needs such as leaching etc.
Thus NIR= Cu - Re + water lost in deep percolation for the purpose of leaching etc.
iv) Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR) Field irrigation requirement is the amount of water
required, to meet 'net irrigation requirements, plus the water lost in percolation in the field
water courses, field channels and in field applications of water. If ὴ a is water application
efficiency, we have FIR=NIR/ὴ
v) Gross Irrigation Requirement (GTR) Gross irrigation requirement is the sum of water
required to satisfy the field irrigation requirement and the water lost as conveyance losses
in distributaries upto the field.
If ὴa is the water conveyance efficiency, we have GIR=FIR/ὴa
31.
32.
33.
34.
35. Water Logging
Water logging is the natural flooding and overirrigation
that brings water at underground levels to the surface.
As a consequence, displacement of the air occurs in the
soil with corresponding changes in soil processes and an
accumulation of toxic substances that impede plant
growth
36. Absence of aeration of soil in the root zone of the plants
Difficulty in cultivation operations
Growth of water weeds & wild aquatic plants
Rise of salts in surface layers
Restricted root growth
Lower soil temperature
Plant diseases
EFFECTS
37. Inadequate surface Drainage
Seepage from canal system
Over irrigation of fields
Impermeable clay layer below the soil.
Construction of a water reservoir
Natural obstruction to the flow of ground water
Causes
38. Providing efficient surface Drainage.
Reducing percolation(the slow passage of a liquid
through a filtering medium) from canals.
Restriction of unwanted irrigation.
Adoption of sprinkler method for irrigation
Removing obstructions in natural drainage.
Measure to control
39. SALINITY
If the concentration of harmful salts in the root zone of a plant
increases to such on extent that plant growth is effected, this
situation is called Salinity.
Causes
The factors contributing towards the problem of salinity are almost same
as that of water logging.
Every agricultural soil has certain mineral salt in it like NaCl, Na2CO3 , Na2
SO4 etc
40. Measure to control
Controlled Irrigation.
Providing adequate surface drainage.
Allowing lower intensity of irrigation.
Reducing surface evaporation.
Not using alkaline water for irrigation purpose.
The possible causes for salt-affected soils could be poor
drainage, saline or sodic subsoil exposure due to erosion,
parent soil material, use of high salt irrigation water, longterm
use of some fertilizers, low rainfall or oil field activity
41. The following techniques or events can help reclaim saline soils.
Salt can be leached out of the root zone through good
quality irrigation water or by heavy rainfall. Create good
surface and internal drainage.
The use of tile drains and open ditches in the fields can
increase drainage and remove some of the salts.
Break the compacted layers that occur near or at the soil
surface.
Add organic matter, such as rotted hay or feedlot manure,
at 10-15 tons/acre to improve soil porosity.
42. There are some additional considerations in the reclamation
of sodic and saline-sodic soils.
Reclamation of sodic soils is similar to saline soil in leaching
the salts out of the root zone, except that gypsum should be
added to remove the sodium. The amount of gypsum
required depends on the soil texture and ESP.
Reclamation of these salt-affected soils is a very difficult thing
and can take several years, so be patient.
Sandy soils in high rainfall regions can be reclaimed more
easily than clay soils if rainfall is the only source of
reclamation.