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16. Water Logging and Salinity Part -2.pdf
Surface and subsurface drainage systems are used to remove excess water from irrigated areas. Surface drainage involves open ditches and land grading to carry water away, while subsurface or tile drainage uses underground pipes to drain water from below the soil surface. Tile drains are made of porous material and laid in trenches backfilled with filter material to prevent soil intrusion. They are connected to larger surface drains or pumps. Different tile drainage layouts are used depending on topography, including natural, gridiron, herringbone, and interceptor systems. Soil salinity occurs when salt concentrations in the root zone inhibit plant growth. It can be caused by high water tables, arid climates with limited leaching, or poor quality
15. Water Logging and Salinity Part-1.pdf
This document discusses water logging and its causes and effects. It defines water logging as when the productivity of agricultural land is affected by a high water table. Key points include:
- Water logging occurs when there is too much water in the root zone of plants, killing bacteria that produce nutrients and reducing crop yields.
- The depth of the water table affects different crops, such as wheat being affected at 0.9-1.2m and sugarcane at 0.3m.
- Causes of water logging include over irrigation, seepage from canals and reservoirs, inadequate drainage, obstruction of water flows, soil type, and excessive rainfall.
- Effects are difficult cultivation, growth of
18. Dams Stability & Environmental Impact.pdf
This document discusses the forces acting on gravity dams and their environmental impacts. It outlines various forces like water pressure, weight of the dam, uplift pressure, earthquake pressure, and wave pressure. It also explains how these forces are calculated. Regarding failure, it notes dams can fail through overturning, sliding, compression, or tension. The document concludes by covering environmental impacts of dam construction like pollution, and impacts of reservoirs like habitat destruction and sedimentation.
exercises 2 supplementary.pdf
The document presents 5 problems related to analyzing the stability of gravity dams and arch dams. Problem 1 involves analyzing the stability of a given gravity dam under various loading and stress conditions. Forces, moments, and stresses are calculated. Problem 2 similarly analyzes the stability of another gravity dam considering additional forces from ice loads and earthquakes. Problem 3 involves calculating the volume of a given arch dam. Problem 4 determines the optimum central angle of an arch dam for minimum volume. Problem 5 provides dimensions for an arch dam and requires calculating properties such as thickness at different depths and total dam volume. Solutions are provided for Problem 1.
17. Ten large dams in Pakistan1.pdf
This document lists and provides details on 10 major dams in Pakistan, including their location, construction timelines, dimensions, and costs. The largest dams are Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam, both located on major rivers like the Jhelum and Indus, with heights over 140 meters and costs over $1 billion. The other dams range in height from 30 to 130 meters, were built between the 1960s and 2010s on various rivers across Pakistan, and cost between 100 million to over 18 billion Pakistani rupees.
13. Canal Outlets & other Head Regulators.pdf
1) The document discusses different types of canal outlets including non-modular and semi-modular outlets. Non-modular outlets include submerged pipe outlets where discharge depends on the head difference between the water course and parent channel.
2) Semi-modular outlets include pipe outlets discharging freely into the atmosphere, Kennedy's gauge outlets, and Crump's open flume outlets where discharge is affected by changes in the parent channel but not the water course.
3) Key characteristics of outlets discussed are flexibility, proportionality, sensitivity, efficiency, minimum modular head, and types include submerged pipe outlets, orifice semi-modules, and Crump's open flume outlets.
05. Diversion Headworks-1.pdf
The document discusses diversion headworks, which divert water from a river into a canal. There are two types: storage headworks, which comprise a dam to store excess river water for later release; and diversion headworks, which directly divert water into the canal. Diversion headworks have several components, including a weir or barrage across the river to raise the water level, canal head regulators, and sluices. A weir is a solid obstruction across the river, while a barrage is a low weir with adjustable gates to control the water level.
14. Waterlogging Supplymentary materials.pdf
1) The document provides data on water table depths and salinity levels across different regions of Pakistan from 2010-2004.
2) In June 2010, most of Punjab's area had a water table from 150-600cm while Sindh's was more varied from 0-600cm. By October 2010, more of Punjab and Sindh's area was under 90cm.
3) From 2001-2004, Punjab had the largest area of which 87% was non-saline, while Sindh's area was more split between non-saline (44%) and saline-sodic (20%).
Recommended
16. Water Logging and Salinity Part -2.pdf
Surface and subsurface drainage systems are used to remove excess water from irrigated areas. Surface drainage involves open ditches and land grading to carry water away, while subsurface or tile drainage uses underground pipes to drain water from below the soil surface. Tile drains are made of porous material and laid in trenches backfilled with filter material to prevent soil intrusion. They are connected to larger surface drains or pumps. Different tile drainage layouts are used depending on topography, including natural, gridiron, herringbone, and interceptor systems. Soil salinity occurs when salt concentrations in the root zone inhibit plant growth. It can be caused by high water tables, arid climates with limited leaching, or poor quality
15. Water Logging and Salinity Part-1.pdf
This document discusses water logging and its causes and effects. It defines water logging as when the productivity of agricultural land is affected by a high water table. Key points include:
- Water logging occurs when there is too much water in the root zone of plants, killing bacteria that produce nutrients and reducing crop yields.
- The depth of the water table affects different crops, such as wheat being affected at 0.9-1.2m and sugarcane at 0.3m.
- Causes of water logging include over irrigation, seepage from canals and reservoirs, inadequate drainage, obstruction of water flows, soil type, and excessive rainfall.
- Effects are difficult cultivation, growth of
18. Dams Stability & Environmental Impact.pdf
This document discusses the forces acting on gravity dams and their environmental impacts. It outlines various forces like water pressure, weight of the dam, uplift pressure, earthquake pressure, and wave pressure. It also explains how these forces are calculated. Regarding failure, it notes dams can fail through overturning, sliding, compression, or tension. The document concludes by covering environmental impacts of dam construction like pollution, and impacts of reservoirs like habitat destruction and sedimentation.
exercises 2 supplementary.pdf
The document presents 5 problems related to analyzing the stability of gravity dams and arch dams. Problem 1 involves analyzing the stability of a given gravity dam under various loading and stress conditions. Forces, moments, and stresses are calculated. Problem 2 similarly analyzes the stability of another gravity dam considering additional forces from ice loads and earthquakes. Problem 3 involves calculating the volume of a given arch dam. Problem 4 determines the optimum central angle of an arch dam for minimum volume. Problem 5 provides dimensions for an arch dam and requires calculating properties such as thickness at different depths and total dam volume. Solutions are provided for Problem 1.
17. Ten large dams in Pakistan1.pdf
This document lists and provides details on 10 major dams in Pakistan, including their location, construction timelines, dimensions, and costs. The largest dams are Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam, both located on major rivers like the Jhelum and Indus, with heights over 140 meters and costs over $1 billion. The other dams range in height from 30 to 130 meters, were built between the 1960s and 2010s on various rivers across Pakistan, and cost between 100 million to over 18 billion Pakistani rupees.
13. Canal Outlets & other Head Regulators.pdf
1) The document discusses different types of canal outlets including non-modular and semi-modular outlets. Non-modular outlets include submerged pipe outlets where discharge depends on the head difference between the water course and parent channel.
2) Semi-modular outlets include pipe outlets discharging freely into the atmosphere, Kennedy's gauge outlets, and Crump's open flume outlets where discharge is affected by changes in the parent channel but not the water course.
3) Key characteristics of outlets discussed are flexibility, proportionality, sensitivity, efficiency, minimum modular head, and types include submerged pipe outlets, orifice semi-modules, and Crump's open flume outlets.
05. Diversion Headworks-1.pdf
The document discusses diversion headworks, which divert water from a river into a canal. There are two types: storage headworks, which comprise a dam to store excess river water for later release; and diversion headworks, which directly divert water into the canal. Diversion headworks have several components, including a weir or barrage across the river to raise the water level, canal head regulators, and sluices. A weir is a solid obstruction across the river, while a barrage is a low weir with adjustable gates to control the water level.
14. Waterlogging Supplymentary materials.pdf
1) The document provides data on water table depths and salinity levels across different regions of Pakistan from 2010-2004.
2) In June 2010, most of Punjab's area had a water table from 150-600cm while Sindh's was more varied from 0-600cm. By October 2010, more of Punjab and Sindh's area was under 90cm.
3) From 2001-2004, Punjab had the largest area of which 87% was non-saline, while Sindh's area was more split between non-saline (44%) and saline-sodic (20%).
12. Canal Head Regulators.2.pdf
1. Canal escapes are side channels that remove surplus water from irrigation channels to prevent damage from overtopping or leaks. They provide a safety valve and are essential for repair and maintenance.
2. There are three main types of escapes - surplus, tail, and scouring escapes - which serve different drainage purposes along canals.
3. Head and cross regulators are structures that control water flow between main canals and off-taking channels. Head regulators meter water entry while cross regulators feed off-taking canals and allow canal breaches to close downstream.
08. Classification of Canals.pdf
There are several ways canals can be classified:
1. Based on the source of water supply - permanent, non-perennial, or inundation canals.
2. Based on function - irrigation, navigation, power, or feeder canals.
3. Based on alignment - watershed/ridge, contour, or side slope canals.
4. Based on discharge capacity - main, branch, distributary, or water course canals.
5. Based on lining - lined or unlined canals.
Canal lining reduces water losses, prevents seepage issues, and lowers maintenance costs but requires a higher initial investment.
17. Ten large dams in Pakistan.docx
This document lists and provides details on 10 major dams in Pakistan, including their location, construction timelines, dimensions, and costs. The largest dams are Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam, both located on major rivers like the Jhelum and Indus, with heights over 140 meters and costs over $1 billion. The other dams range in height from 30 to 130 meters, were built between the 1960s and 2010s on various rivers across Pakistan, and cost between 100 million to over 18 billion Pakistani rupees.
07. Diversion Headworks-3.pdf
The document discusses the design and construction of marginal embankments and guide banks for irrigation projects. It also discusses potential failure modes of weirs and barrages built on permeable foundations, including piping, undermining from subsurface flow, and scouring from surface flow. It describes Bligh's theory and Lane's weighted creep theory for designing impervious floors to prevent uplift and piping. Precautions that can be taken include increasing the impervious floor thickness, providing sheet piles, and using energy dissipation structures.
14. What-you-need-to-know-about-Waterlogging (Supply).pdf
1. Waterlogging occurs when soil pores are saturated with water, either temporarily or permanently, restricting air circulation. This can be caused by natural factors like heavy rainfall or human activities like poor irrigation management.
2. Waterlogging has negative effects including lack of soil aeration, reduced crop yields, and creation of unhealthy environments that can spread disease. Specific soil types like vertisols and planosols are more prone to waterlogging issues.
3. Understanding the causes and effects of waterlogging is important to address drainage problems and improve agricultural productivity on lands affected by excess water.
14. Cross Drainage Works.pdf
Cross drainage works are hydraulic structures constructed where canals cross natural drainages like rivers or streams. There are three main types depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage: 1) where the canal passes over the drainage, 2) where the drainage passes over the canal, and 3) where their levels intersect. Common structures include aqueducts, super passages, and level crossings. The type of structure constructed depends on factors like relative bed levels, foundation conditions, economics, and hydraulic design considerations. Their purpose is to allow both the canal and drainage waters to flow smoothly in their respective directions.
18. Environmental Impacts of Dams (Supply).pdf
Dams provide many benefits like improving quality of life through irrigation, flood control, hydropower, and more. However, they can also negatively impact the environment and human populations. Key impacts include displacing many people worldwide and inadequate compensation, harming terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by blocking animal migrations and altering natural river flows, and emitting greenhouse gases from reservoirs. While dams provide irrigation and hydropower, their construction often undercounts displaced people and fails to fully resettle them, compromising livelihoods. Cultural heritage sites can also be damaged or lost. Mitigation efforts are often insufficient to address these social and environmental impacts.
10. Silt Theories [Kennedy's Theory-I].pdf
This document discusses Kennedy's theory of alluvial channel design and siltation. It provides two examples of applying Kennedy's theory to design irrigation channels given different parameters. It also lists some shortcomings of Kennedy's theory, including that it does not account for important factors like B/D ratio, silt grade, the relationship between flow velocity and slope, or the separation of silt concentration and bed load.
11. Silt Theories [Lacey's Theory].pdf
This document summarizes Lacey's regime theory for alluvial channel design. [1] Lacey proposed that silt is kept in suspension by vertical eddies generated along the wetted perimeter. [2] A channel is in "regime" if there is no silting or scouring. [3] Lacey defined three regime conditions - true, initial, and final - but acknowledged true regime can never be achieved in practice. The document then outlines Lacey's equations and design procedure for irrigation channels based on factors like discharge, silt factor, and side slopes.
17. Large Dams-Questions and Answers (Supply).docx
Large dams are defined as over 15 meters tall, with over 57,000 worldwide. China has the most with over 23,000, followed by the US, India, Japan, and Brazil. While over 1000 dams were under construction in 1994, the rate of completion has declined from around 1000 per year from the 1950s to the 1970s to around 260 per year in the early 1990s. Large dams have faced significant opposition due to the huge numbers of people displaced, estimated between 40 to 80 million displaced globally, mostly in China and India, with many impoverished and suffering after being forced to relocate. Dams have also flooded over 400,000 square kilometers of land and over 13,500 people have been killed in
04. Water Resources of Pakistan.pdf
This document provides information about water resources in Pakistan. It states that Pakistan may run out of water by 2025 if actions are not taken due to increasing water stress. It notes that agriculture is the largest consumer of water resources in Pakistan, using over 90% of available water. However, only around 40% of irrigation water is used efficiently with the rest lost during conveyance and in fields. The document also provides details on irrigation systems and seasons in Pakistan.
03. Water Requirements of Crops (Supply).pdf
The document discusses water requirements for crops and irrigation concepts. It provides definitions for key terms like gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, base period, delta, duty of water, and irrigation requirements for various crops. It lists the average delta values for important crops in Pakistan and discusses factors like water depth, number of irrigations, and seed and yield quantities for different kharif and rabi season crops.
10. Kenedy's and Lacey's Theory (Supply).pdf
The document discusses the design of irrigation channels. It covers the design of non-alluvial channels, which are excavated in non-silty soils like clay and do not experience silt deposition. The design involves selecting a channel shape and size so that the mean flow velocity is below the maximum permissible velocity for the soil type to prevent erosion. It provides tables of permissible velocities and Manning's roughness coefficients for different soil types. An example problem demonstrates how to use the Manning equation to design a trapezoidal channel with given discharge, slope and roughness.
12. Canal Head Regulation.1.pdf
Canal regulation works are structures constructed to regulate water flow in canals. This document discusses various types of canal regulation works including canal falls. Canal falls are constructed across canals to lower the water level and dissipate excess energy when the natural ground slope is steeper than the canal design slope. Different types of falls are discussed such as ogee falls, rapid falls, stepped falls, and others; each has a distinct design to best suit different ground level conditions and dissipate water energy. Proper construction of falls is necessary for efficient and safe operation of irrigation canals.
17. Dams and its Types.pdf
This document discusses different types of dams and their classification. It defines a dam as a massive barrier built across rivers and streams to store water. Dams are classified according to their use, hydraulic design, materials used, size, and height. The main types are storage dams, diversion dams, detention dams, non-overflow dams, overflow dams, rigid dams made of concrete/masonry, non-rigid earth/rockfill dams. Factors for selecting the appropriate dam type include topography, geology, materials, spillway design, reservoir size, and transportation access.
09. Silt Theories [Kennedy's Theory].pdf
Kennedy's silt theory proposes that vertical eddies rising from the bed of an alluvial channel are responsible for keeping silt particles in suspension. The theory defines a critical velocity that will prevent silting or scouring. Kennedy's equation relates the critical velocity to the depth of flow. Later, Kennedy modified the equation to account for different silt grades by including a critical velocity ratio parameter. The theory provides a design procedure that involves iteratively selecting a trial depth and checking if the calculated mean velocity matches the critical velocity. If not, a new trial depth is selected until the velocities match.
02. Methods of Irrigation.pdf
This document discusses various methods of irrigation. It describes surface irrigation methods like furrow, border and basin irrigation. Furrow irrigation involves applying water in narrow channels between crop rows. Border irrigation divides fields into strips separated by ridges to guide water flow. Basin irrigation forms basins around trees to pond water. Sprinkler irrigation sprays water into the air through pipes and nozzles. Drip irrigation applies water slowly directly to plant roots through a piped network. Drip irrigation has high efficiency but requires clean water to prevent emitter blockages. Overall, surface methods have lower efficiency than sprinkler or drip irrigation due to higher losses from conveyance and deep percolation.
03. Planning Water Resources Project (2) Solved Problems.pdf
- The document discusses planning of water resource projects, including determining water needs, canal capacity, and irrigation requirements.
- Key factors in planning include gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, intensity of irrigation, base period, duty, delta, conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, and irrigation requirements of different crops.
- Formulas show relationships between duty, base period, and delta. Examples demonstrate calculating delta for different crops given duty and base period.
06. Diversion Headworks-2.pdf
The document discusses various aspects of selecting a site for a diversion headworks and its components. It provides criteria for selecting an optimal site, such as the river being straight and narrow, having a higher elevation than the irrigation area, and having stable banks. It also discusses types of weirs, barrages, and other structures used at diversion headworks, such as under sluices, fish ladders, canal head regulators, and silt control works. Key considerations for site selection aim to minimize construction costs and water losses while safely diverting water for irrigation.
04. Water Resources of Pakistan [Change Format].pdf
Pakistan faces increasing water stress and scarcity as its population grows. Its water resources come from rainfall, surface water from rivers and reservoirs, and groundwater. Rainfall alone cannot sustain much agriculture, so Pakistan has developed one of the world's largest irrigation systems including major dams, barrages, and canals. However, aging infrastructure and increasing demand mean Pakistan may face acute shortages by 2025 if actions are not taken to improve efficiency and management of its water resources.
The Python for beginners. This is an advance computer language.
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IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society as a Graduate Student Member
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More from MuhammadAjmal326519
12. Canal Head Regulators.2.pdf
1. Canal escapes are side channels that remove surplus water from irrigation channels to prevent damage from overtopping or leaks. They provide a safety valve and are essential for repair and maintenance.
2. There are three main types of escapes - surplus, tail, and scouring escapes - which serve different drainage purposes along canals.
3. Head and cross regulators are structures that control water flow between main canals and off-taking channels. Head regulators meter water entry while cross regulators feed off-taking canals and allow canal breaches to close downstream.
08. Classification of Canals.pdf
There are several ways canals can be classified:
1. Based on the source of water supply - permanent, non-perennial, or inundation canals.
2. Based on function - irrigation, navigation, power, or feeder canals.
3. Based on alignment - watershed/ridge, contour, or side slope canals.
4. Based on discharge capacity - main, branch, distributary, or water course canals.
5. Based on lining - lined or unlined canals.
Canal lining reduces water losses, prevents seepage issues, and lowers maintenance costs but requires a higher initial investment.
17. Ten large dams in Pakistan.docx
This document lists and provides details on 10 major dams in Pakistan, including their location, construction timelines, dimensions, and costs. The largest dams are Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam, both located on major rivers like the Jhelum and Indus, with heights over 140 meters and costs over $1 billion. The other dams range in height from 30 to 130 meters, were built between the 1960s and 2010s on various rivers across Pakistan, and cost between 100 million to over 18 billion Pakistani rupees.
07. Diversion Headworks-3.pdf
The document discusses the design and construction of marginal embankments and guide banks for irrigation projects. It also discusses potential failure modes of weirs and barrages built on permeable foundations, including piping, undermining from subsurface flow, and scouring from surface flow. It describes Bligh's theory and Lane's weighted creep theory for designing impervious floors to prevent uplift and piping. Precautions that can be taken include increasing the impervious floor thickness, providing sheet piles, and using energy dissipation structures.
14. What-you-need-to-know-about-Waterlogging (Supply).pdf
1. Waterlogging occurs when soil pores are saturated with water, either temporarily or permanently, restricting air circulation. This can be caused by natural factors like heavy rainfall or human activities like poor irrigation management.
2. Waterlogging has negative effects including lack of soil aeration, reduced crop yields, and creation of unhealthy environments that can spread disease. Specific soil types like vertisols and planosols are more prone to waterlogging issues.
3. Understanding the causes and effects of waterlogging is important to address drainage problems and improve agricultural productivity on lands affected by excess water.
14. Cross Drainage Works.pdf
Cross drainage works are hydraulic structures constructed where canals cross natural drainages like rivers or streams. There are three main types depending on the relative bed levels of the canal and drainage: 1) where the canal passes over the drainage, 2) where the drainage passes over the canal, and 3) where their levels intersect. Common structures include aqueducts, super passages, and level crossings. The type of structure constructed depends on factors like relative bed levels, foundation conditions, economics, and hydraulic design considerations. Their purpose is to allow both the canal and drainage waters to flow smoothly in their respective directions.
18. Environmental Impacts of Dams (Supply).pdf
Dams provide many benefits like improving quality of life through irrigation, flood control, hydropower, and more. However, they can also negatively impact the environment and human populations. Key impacts include displacing many people worldwide and inadequate compensation, harming terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by blocking animal migrations and altering natural river flows, and emitting greenhouse gases from reservoirs. While dams provide irrigation and hydropower, their construction often undercounts displaced people and fails to fully resettle them, compromising livelihoods. Cultural heritage sites can also be damaged or lost. Mitigation efforts are often insufficient to address these social and environmental impacts.
10. Silt Theories [Kennedy's Theory-I].pdf
This document discusses Kennedy's theory of alluvial channel design and siltation. It provides two examples of applying Kennedy's theory to design irrigation channels given different parameters. It also lists some shortcomings of Kennedy's theory, including that it does not account for important factors like B/D ratio, silt grade, the relationship between flow velocity and slope, or the separation of silt concentration and bed load.
11. Silt Theories [Lacey's Theory].pdf
This document summarizes Lacey's regime theory for alluvial channel design. [1] Lacey proposed that silt is kept in suspension by vertical eddies generated along the wetted perimeter. [2] A channel is in "regime" if there is no silting or scouring. [3] Lacey defined three regime conditions - true, initial, and final - but acknowledged true regime can never be achieved in practice. The document then outlines Lacey's equations and design procedure for irrigation channels based on factors like discharge, silt factor, and side slopes.
17. Large Dams-Questions and Answers (Supply).docx
Large dams are defined as over 15 meters tall, with over 57,000 worldwide. China has the most with over 23,000, followed by the US, India, Japan, and Brazil. While over 1000 dams were under construction in 1994, the rate of completion has declined from around 1000 per year from the 1950s to the 1970s to around 260 per year in the early 1990s. Large dams have faced significant opposition due to the huge numbers of people displaced, estimated between 40 to 80 million displaced globally, mostly in China and India, with many impoverished and suffering after being forced to relocate. Dams have also flooded over 400,000 square kilometers of land and over 13,500 people have been killed in
04. Water Resources of Pakistan.pdf
This document provides information about water resources in Pakistan. It states that Pakistan may run out of water by 2025 if actions are not taken due to increasing water stress. It notes that agriculture is the largest consumer of water resources in Pakistan, using over 90% of available water. However, only around 40% of irrigation water is used efficiently with the rest lost during conveyance and in fields. The document also provides details on irrigation systems and seasons in Pakistan.
03. Water Requirements of Crops (Supply).pdf
The document discusses water requirements for crops and irrigation concepts. It provides definitions for key terms like gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, base period, delta, duty of water, and irrigation requirements for various crops. It lists the average delta values for important crops in Pakistan and discusses factors like water depth, number of irrigations, and seed and yield quantities for different kharif and rabi season crops.
10. Kenedy's and Lacey's Theory (Supply).pdf
The document discusses the design of irrigation channels. It covers the design of non-alluvial channels, which are excavated in non-silty soils like clay and do not experience silt deposition. The design involves selecting a channel shape and size so that the mean flow velocity is below the maximum permissible velocity for the soil type to prevent erosion. It provides tables of permissible velocities and Manning's roughness coefficients for different soil types. An example problem demonstrates how to use the Manning equation to design a trapezoidal channel with given discharge, slope and roughness.
12. Canal Head Regulation.1.pdf
Canal regulation works are structures constructed to regulate water flow in canals. This document discusses various types of canal regulation works including canal falls. Canal falls are constructed across canals to lower the water level and dissipate excess energy when the natural ground slope is steeper than the canal design slope. Different types of falls are discussed such as ogee falls, rapid falls, stepped falls, and others; each has a distinct design to best suit different ground level conditions and dissipate water energy. Proper construction of falls is necessary for efficient and safe operation of irrigation canals.
17. Dams and its Types.pdf
This document discusses different types of dams and their classification. It defines a dam as a massive barrier built across rivers and streams to store water. Dams are classified according to their use, hydraulic design, materials used, size, and height. The main types are storage dams, diversion dams, detention dams, non-overflow dams, overflow dams, rigid dams made of concrete/masonry, non-rigid earth/rockfill dams. Factors for selecting the appropriate dam type include topography, geology, materials, spillway design, reservoir size, and transportation access.
09. Silt Theories [Kennedy's Theory].pdf
Kennedy's silt theory proposes that vertical eddies rising from the bed of an alluvial channel are responsible for keeping silt particles in suspension. The theory defines a critical velocity that will prevent silting or scouring. Kennedy's equation relates the critical velocity to the depth of flow. Later, Kennedy modified the equation to account for different silt grades by including a critical velocity ratio parameter. The theory provides a design procedure that involves iteratively selecting a trial depth and checking if the calculated mean velocity matches the critical velocity. If not, a new trial depth is selected until the velocities match.
02. Methods of Irrigation.pdf
This document discusses various methods of irrigation. It describes surface irrigation methods like furrow, border and basin irrigation. Furrow irrigation involves applying water in narrow channels between crop rows. Border irrigation divides fields into strips separated by ridges to guide water flow. Basin irrigation forms basins around trees to pond water. Sprinkler irrigation sprays water into the air through pipes and nozzles. Drip irrigation applies water slowly directly to plant roots through a piped network. Drip irrigation has high efficiency but requires clean water to prevent emitter blockages. Overall, surface methods have lower efficiency than sprinkler or drip irrigation due to higher losses from conveyance and deep percolation.
03. Planning Water Resources Project (2) Solved Problems.pdf
- The document discusses planning of water resource projects, including determining water needs, canal capacity, and irrigation requirements.
- Key factors in planning include gross commanded area, culturable commanded area, crop period, intensity of irrigation, base period, duty, delta, conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, and irrigation requirements of different crops.
- Formulas show relationships between duty, base period, and delta. Examples demonstrate calculating delta for different crops given duty and base period.
06. Diversion Headworks-2.pdf
The document discusses various aspects of selecting a site for a diversion headworks and its components. It provides criteria for selecting an optimal site, such as the river being straight and narrow, having a higher elevation than the irrigation area, and having stable banks. It also discusses types of weirs, barrages, and other structures used at diversion headworks, such as under sluices, fish ladders, canal head regulators, and silt control works. Key considerations for site selection aim to minimize construction costs and water losses while safely diverting water for irrigation.
04. Water Resources of Pakistan [Change Format].pdf
Pakistan faces increasing water stress and scarcity as its population grows. Its water resources come from rainfall, surface water from rivers and reservoirs, and groundwater. Rainfall alone cannot sustain much agriculture, so Pakistan has developed one of the world's largest irrigation systems including major dams, barrages, and canals. However, aging infrastructure and increasing demand mean Pakistan may face acute shortages by 2025 if actions are not taken to improve efficiency and management of its water resources.
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14. What-you-need-to-know-about-Waterlogging (Supply).pdf
14. What-you-need-to-know-about-Waterlogging (Supply).pdf
17. Large Dams-Questions and Answers (Supply).docx
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03. Planning Water Resources Project (2) Solved Problems.pdf
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### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
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