Research Process Research Problem and it identification theory and practice Hypothesis

1. IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST MERCIFUL THE MOST GRACIOUS AND THE MOST HELPFUL

2. Research Process inResearch Process in
EducationEducation
Research Process inResearch Process in
EducationEducation
By AQ KhanBy AQ KhanBy AQ KhanBy AQ Khan

3. RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research ProblemIdentify and Define Research Problem
Reviewing the LiteratureReviewing the Literature
Specifying the Purpose of ResearchSpecifying the Purpose of Research
Data collectionData collection
Data AnalysisData Analysis
Report Writing and Evaluating ResearchReport Writing and Evaluating Research
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4. What is a problem?What is a problem?
. . . any situation where a gap exists between. . . any situation where a gap exists between
the actual and the desired state.the actual and the desired state.
A problem does not necessarily mean thatA problem does not necessarily mean that
something is seriously wrong. It could simplysomething is seriously wrong. It could simply
indicate an interest in improving an existingindicate an interest in improving an existing
situation. Thus, problem definitions can includesituation. Thus, problem definitions can include
both existing problems in the current situation asboth existing problems in the current situation as
well as the quest for idealistic states in the future.well as the quest for idealistic states in the future.
For Example : Beside the other barriers “DisruptiveFor Example : Beside the other barriers “Disruptive
Behavior “in Secondary Schools has become a bigBehavior “in Secondary Schools has become a big
challenge for teachers especially after 131challenge for teachers especially after 131stst
Bill NABill NA
in 2012 against the physical punishment in schools.in 2012 against the physical punishment in schools.
RESEARCH PROCESS – Research ProblemRESEARCH PROCESS – Research Problem

5. How are problems identified?
1. Observation – Educational manager/researcher
senses that changes are occurring, or that some new
behaviors, attitudes, feelings, communication patterns,
etc., are surfacing in one’s environment. The manager
may not understand exactly what is happening, but can
definitely sense that things are not what they should
be.
2. Preliminary Data Collection – use of interviews, both
unstructured and structured, to get an idea or “feel” for
what is happening in the situation.
3. Literature Survey – a comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished work from secondary
sources of data in the areas related to the problem.
RESEARCH PROCESS – Problem IdentificationRESEARCH PROCESS – Problem Identification

6. Theory = a systematic set of relationshipsTheory = a systematic set of relationships
providing a consistent and comprehensiveproviding a consistent and comprehensive
explanation of a phenomenon. In practice, aexplanation of a phenomenon. In practice, a
theory is a researcher’s attempt to specifytheory is a researcher’s attempt to specify
the entire set of dependence relationshipsthe entire set of dependence relationships
explaining a particular set of outcomes.explaining a particular set of outcomes.
Theory is based on prior empiricalTheory is based on prior empirical
research, past experiences and observationsresearch, past experiences and observations
of behavior, attitudes, or other phenomena,of behavior, attitudes, or other phenomena,
and other theories that provide a perspectiveand other theories that provide a perspective
for developing possible relationships.for developing possible relationships.
Theory is used to prepare aTheory is used to prepare a theoreticaltheoretical
frameworkframework for the research.for the research.
RESEARCH PROCESS – Theory/PracticeRESEARCH PROCESS – Theory/Practice

7. Theoretical Framework =Theoretical Framework = a writtena written
description that includes a conceptual model.description that includes a conceptual model.
It integrates all the information about theIt integrates all the information about the
problem in a logical manner, describes theproblem in a logical manner, describes the
relationships among the variables, explainsrelationships among the variables, explains
the theory underlying these relationships, andthe theory underlying these relationships, and
indicates the nature and direction of theindicates the nature and direction of the
relationships.relationships...
RESEARCH PROCESS – TheoreticalRESEARCH PROCESS – Theoretical
FrameworkFramework

8. HypothesesHypotheses = preconceptions the= preconceptions the
researcher develops regarding theresearcher develops regarding the
relationships represented in therelationships represented in the
data, typically based on theory,data, typically based on theory,
practice or previous research.practice or previous research.
RESEARCH PROCESS – HypothesesRESEARCH PROCESS – Hypotheses

9. A literature survey ensures that:A literature survey ensures that:
1.1. Important variables likely to influence the problem areImportant variables likely to influence the problem are
not left out of the study.not left out of the study.
2.2. A clearer idea emerges regarding what variables areA clearer idea emerges regarding what variables are
most important to consider, why they are important,most important to consider, why they are important,
and how they should be investigated.and how they should be investigated.
3.3. The problem is more accurately and precisely defined.The problem is more accurately and precisely defined.
4.4. The interviews cover all important topics.The interviews cover all important topics.
5.5. The research hypotheses are testable.The research hypotheses are testable.
6.6. The research can be replicated.The research can be replicated.
7.7. One does not “reinvent the wheel”; that is, time is notOne does not “reinvent the wheel”; that is, time is not
wasted trying to rediscover something that is alreadywasted trying to rediscover something that is already
known.known.
For example all the literature on disruption andFor example all the literature on disruption and
classroom management constituted the literature forclassroom management constituted the literature for
review for conducting the study.review for conducting the study.
RESEARCH PROCESS – Problem IdentificationRESEARCH PROCESS – Problem Identification

10. RESEARCH PROCESS – DefinitionsRESEARCH PROCESS – Definitions
Variable = the observable and measurable characteristics/attributes theVariable = the observable and measurable characteristics/attributes the
researcher specifies, studies, and draws conclusions about.researcher specifies, studies, and draws conclusions about.
Types of VariablesTypes of Variables ::
• Independent variable =Independent variable = also called a predictor variable, it is a variable oralso called a predictor variable, it is a variable or
construct that influences or explains the dependent variable either in aconstruct that influences or explains the dependent variable either in a
positive or negative way.positive or negative way.
• Dependent variable =Dependent variable = also known as a criterion variable, it is a variable oralso known as a criterion variable, it is a variable or
construct the researcher hopes to understand, explain and/or predict.construct the researcher hopes to understand, explain and/or predict.
• Moderator variable =Moderator variable = a variable that has an effect on the independent –a variable that has an effect on the independent –
dependent variable relationship. The presence of a moderator variabledependent variable relationship. The presence of a moderator variable
modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependentmodifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent
variables by interacting with the independent variable to influence thevariables by interacting with the independent variable to influence the
strength of the relationship with the dependent variable.strength of the relationship with the dependent variable.
• Mediating variable =Mediating variable = also known as an intervening variable, it is a variablealso known as an intervening variable, it is a variable
that surfaces as a function of the independent variable and explains thethat surfaces as a function of the independent variable and explains the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Moderatorrelationship between the dependent and independent variables. Moderator
variables specify when certain effects will occur whereas mediators speak tovariables specify when certain effects will occur whereas mediators speak to
how or why such effects occur. Moreover, mediators explain how externalhow or why such effects occur. Moreover, mediators explain how external
events take on internal psychological significance.events take on internal psychological significance.

11. The Purposes of Research
Five categories
• Basic
• Applied
• Evaluation
• Research and
development (R & D)
• Action

12. The Purposes of Research
Basic research
Collection and analysis of data to develop or
enhance theory
Examples related to learning theory
• Piaget
• Constructivism
• Mastery learning
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences

13. The Purposes of Research
Applied research
Collection and analysis of data to examine the
usefulness of theory in solving practical
educational problems
Examples
Developing a seventh grade social studies
curriculum around a problem-solving approach to
learning
Examining the effectiveness of a computer-based
algebra program developed around a mastery
learning approach
Accommodating varied learning styles when
teaching lessons in modern literature

14. The Purposes of Research
Evaluation research
The collection and analysis of data to make
decisions related to the merit or worth of a
specific program
Merit relates to a program accomplishing
what it was supposed to accomplish
Worth relates to the value attached to a
program by those using it

15. The Purposes of Research
Research and development
The development of effective products for use in
schools
Examples
The development of the software to create a
computerized algebra program that
incorporates an individualized mastery
learning approach to teaching basic algebraic
concepts
The development of a Smart Board to
enhance a teacher’s use of technology in the
classroom

16. The Purposes of Research
Action research
The collection and analysis of data to
provide a solution to the practical, valued
problems of educators within their own
school or organization
Examples
How can our college move to a performance
based model for undergraduate teacher
preparation programs?
How can disciplinary policies be enforced
consistently in our school?

17. RESEARCHRESEARCH
DESIGNDESIGN – Types– Types
Research Design Alternatives – PurposeResearch Design Alternatives – Purpose ::
(1)(1) Exploratory –Exploratory – to formulate the problem, developto formulate the problem, develop
hypotheses, identify constructs,hypotheses, identify constructs, establish prioritiesestablish priorities
for research, refine ideas,for research, refine ideas, clarify concepts, etc.clarify concepts, etc.
(2)(2) Descriptive –Descriptive – to describe characteristics of certainto describe characteristics of certain
groups, estimate proportion of people in agroups, estimate proportion of people in a
populationpopulation who behave in a given way, andwho behave in a given way, and to maketo make
directionaldirectional predictions.predictions.
(3)(3) Causal –Causal – to provide evidence of the relationshipsto provide evidence of the relationships
between variables, the sequence in which eventsbetween variables, the sequence in which events
occur, and/or to eliminate otheroccur, and/or to eliminate other possiblepossible
explanations.explanations.

18. Two Broad ApproachesTwo Broad Approaches ::
1.1. Qualitative.Qualitative.
2.2. Quantitative.Quantitative.
Research DesignResearch Design ––
ApproachesApproaches

19. Role of Qualitative ResearchRole of Qualitative Research ::
 Search of academic and professionalSearch of academic and professional
literature (both traditional & Internet).literature (both traditional & Internet).
 Use of interviews, brainstorming, focus groups.Use of interviews, brainstorming, focus groups.
 Internalization of how others have undertakenInternalization of how others have undertaken
both qualitative and quantitative research.both qualitative and quantitative research.
 Use of existing questionnaires/constructs.Use of existing questionnaires/constructs.
Outcome of Qualitative ResearchOutcome of Qualitative Research ::
 Improve conceptualization.Improve conceptualization.
 Clarify research design, including data collectionClarify research design, including data collection
approach.approach.
 Draft questionnaire.Draft questionnaire.
RESEARCH DESIGNRESEARCH DESIGN

20. Role of Quantitative ResearchRole of Quantitative Research ::
 Quantify data and generalize results fromQuantify data and generalize results from
sample to population.sample to population.
 Facilitates examination of large number ofFacilitates examination of large number of
representative cases.representative cases.
 Structured approach to data collection.Structured approach to data collection.
 Enables extensive statistical analysis.Enables extensive statistical analysis.
Outcome of Quantitative ResearchOutcome of Quantitative Research ::
 Validation of qualitative research findings.Validation of qualitative research findings.
 Confirmation of hypotheses, theories, etc.Confirmation of hypotheses, theories, etc.
 Recommend final course of action.Recommend final course of action.
RESEARCH DESIGNRESEARCH DESIGN

21. DATA COLLECTIONDATA COLLECTION
ApproachesApproaches::
ObservationObservation
• HumanHuman
• Mechanical/Electronic DevicesMechanical/Electronic Devices
SurveysSurveys
• Self-CompletionSelf-Completion
• Mail/Overnight Delivery/FaxMail/Overnight Delivery/Fax
• ElectronicElectronic
• Interviewer-AdministeredInterviewer-Administered
• Face-to-Face – Home, Work, Mall, FocusFace-to-Face – Home, Work, Mall, Focus
GroupsGroups
• TelephoneTelephone

22. DATA COLLECTIONDATA COLLECTION
Selection of data collectionSelection of data collection
approachapproach??
• BudgetBudget
• Knowledge of issues – qualitativeKnowledge of issues – qualitative
vs. quantitativevs. quantitative
• Respondent ParticipationRespondent Participation
• Time AvailableTime Available

23. DATA COLLECTIONDATA COLLECTION
Types of DataTypes of Data::
• PrimaryPrimary
• SecondarySecondary

24. PRIMARY DATAPRIMARY DATA
Primary Data SourcesPrimary Data Sources ::
• Informal discussions;Informal discussions;
brainstormingbrainstorming
• Focus groupsFocus groups
• Observational MethodsObservational Methods
• Structured & Unstructured SurveysStructured & Unstructured Surveys
• ExperimentsExperiments

25. Purpose of QuestionnairesPurpose of Questionnaires::
• To obtain information that cannot be easilyTo obtain information that cannot be easily
observed or is not already available inobserved or is not already available in
written or electronic form.written or electronic form.
• Questionnaires enable researchers to measureQuestionnaires enable researchers to measure
concepts/constructs.concepts/constructs.
PRIMARY DATAPRIMARY DATA ––
QUESTIONNAIRESQUESTIONNAIRES

26. Steps in Questionnaire DesignSteps in Questionnaire Design ::
1.1. Initial Considerations – problem, objectives,Initial Considerations – problem, objectives,
target population, sampling, etc.target population, sampling, etc.
2.2. Clarification of Concepts – select variables,Clarification of Concepts – select variables,
constructs, measurement approach, etc.constructs, measurement approach, etc.
3.3. Developing the QuestionnaireDeveloping the Questionnaire
 Length and sequence.Length and sequence.
 Types of questions.Types of questions.
 Sources of questions.Sources of questions.
 Wording, coding, layout and instructions.Wording, coding, layout and instructions.
4.4. Pre-testing the Questionnaire.Pre-testing the Questionnaire.
5.5. Questionnaire Administration Planning.Questionnaire Administration Planning.
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

27. Open-ended Questions = place no constraints on
respondents; i.e., they are free to answer in their own
words and to give whatever thoughts come to mind.
Closed-ended Questions = respondent is given the
option of choosing from a number of predetermined
answers.
Two Types of QuestionsTwo Types of Questions ::
1.1. Open-endedOpen-ended
2.2. Closed-endedClosed-ended
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

28. Closed-end QuestionsClosed-end Questions::
 Single AnswerSingle Answer
 Multiple AnswerMultiple Answer
 Rank OrderRank Order
 NumericNumeric
 Likert-Type ScalesLikert-Type Scales
 Semantic DifferentialSemantic Differential
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

29. Questionnaire SequenceQuestionnaire Sequence
• Opening QuestionsOpening Questions
• Research Topic QuestionsResearch Topic Questions
• Classification QuestionsClassification Questions
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

30. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
• How to increase respondent participation.How to increase respondent participation.
• How to screen out respondents that are not wanted andHow to screen out respondents that are not wanted and
still keep them happy.still keep them happy.
• What to say when respondents ask how to answer aWhat to say when respondents ask how to answer a
particular question.particular question.
• When concepts may not be easily understood, how toWhen concepts may not be easily understood, how to
define them.define them.
• When answer alternatives are to be read to respondentsWhen answer alternatives are to be read to respondents
(aided response) or not to be read (unaided response).(aided response) or not to be read (unaided response).
• How to follow branching or skip patterns.How to follow branching or skip patterns.
• When and how to probe.When and how to probe.
• How to end the interview.How to end the interview.
Issues – Interviewer-AssistedIssues – Interviewer-Assisted
InstructionsInstructions ::

31. Identify response bias for below questions:Identify response bias for below questions:
1.1. ““Do you advocate a lower speed limit to save human lives?”Do you advocate a lower speed limit to save human lives?”
2.2. ““About what time do you ordinarily do exercise?”About what time do you ordinarily do exercise?”
3.3. ““Would you favor increasing taxes to cope with the current fiscalWould you favor increasing taxes to cope with the current fiscal
crisis?”crisis?”
4.4. ““Don’t you see some danger in playing Boxing?”Don’t you see some danger in playing Boxing?”
5.5. ““What small appliance, such as countertop appliances, have youWhat small appliance, such as countertop appliances, have you
purchased in the past month?”purchased in the past month?”
6.6. ““When you buy ‘fast food,’ what percentage of the time do youWhen you buy ‘fast food,’ what percentage of the time do you
order each of the following types of food?”order each of the following types of food?”
7.7. ““Do you like to Cricket?”Do you like to Cricket?”
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

32. Comments on Questions:Comments on Questions:
1.1. A loaded question because everyone wants to save lives. Also,A loaded question because everyone wants to save lives. Also,
it presumes that lower speed limits saves lives.it presumes that lower speed limits saves lives.
2.2. Too specific because respondents likely cannot remember theToo specific because respondents likely cannot remember the
exact number of times.exact number of times.
3.3. Ambiguous because don’t know if dinner is lunch or evening.Ambiguous because don’t know if dinner is lunch or evening.
4.4. Not specific enough about types of stores.Not specific enough about types of stores.
5.5. Overemphasis because refers to crisis.Overemphasis because refers to crisis.
6.6. Leading question because uses “danger” in sentence.Leading question because uses “danger” in sentence.
7.7. Answers likely to relate only to countertop appliances and notAnswers likely to relate only to countertop appliances and not
all small appliances.all small appliances.
8.8. Over generalization because does not specify time period.Over generalization because does not specify time period.
9.9. Ambiguous because may like orange juice for themselves, or forAmbiguous because may like orange juice for themselves, or for
their kids, but really do not know.their kids, but really do not know.
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

33. • ObjectiveObjective: to identify possible shortcomings of: to identify possible shortcomings of
questionnaire.questionnaire.
• ApproachesApproaches – informal or formal.– informal or formal.
• Can assessCan assess::
• ability to perform meaningfulability to perform meaningful
analysesanalyses
• time to complete thetime to complete the
questionnairequestionnaire
• cost of data collectioncost of data collection
• which questions are relevantwhich questions are relevant
• whether key questions havewhether key questions have
been overlookedbeen overlooked
• sources of biassources of bias
• clarity of instructionsclarity of instructions
• cover lettercover letter
• clarity of questionsclarity of questions
• adequacy of codes andadequacy of codes and
categories for pre-categories for pre-
coded questionscoded questions
• quality of responsesquality of responses
• likely response ratelikely response rate
Pre-testing QuestionnairesPre-testing Questionnaires ::
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNQUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

34. Scales = the approach used to measureScales = the approach used to measure
concepts (constructs).concepts (constructs).
Two OptionsTwo Options::
1.1. Use published scales.Use published scales.
2.2. Develop originalDevelop original
scales.scales.
Scale DevelopmentScale Development

35. Types of ScalesTypes of Scales::
• MetricMetric (interval & ratio)(interval & ratio)
• Likert-typeLikert-type
• Summated-Ratings (Likert)Summated-Ratings (Likert)
• NumericalNumerical
• Semantic DifferentialSemantic Differential
• Graphic-RatingsGraphic-Ratings
• NonmetricNonmetric (nominal & ordinal)(nominal & ordinal)
• CategoricalCategorical
• Constant Sum MethodConstant Sum Method
• Paired ComparisonsPaired Comparisons
• Rank OrderRank Order
• SortingSorting
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES

36. Examples of Likert-Type ScalesExamples of Likert-Type Scales ::
““When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to seeWhen I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see
what it is like.”what it is like.”
Strongly Agree Neither Agree DisagreeStrongly Agree Neither Agree Disagree
StronglyStrongly
Agree SomewhatAgree Somewhat or Disagree Somewhator Disagree Somewhat
DisagreeDisagree
11 22 33 44
55
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Metric– Metric
““When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to seeWhen I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see
what it is like.”what it is like.”
StronglyStrongly StronglyStrongly
AgreeAgree
DisagreeDisagree
11 22 33 44
55

37. Summated Ratings ScalesSummated Ratings Scales ::
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked toA scaling technique in which respondents are asked to
indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement withindicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with
each of a number of statements. A subject’s attitudeeach of a number of statements. A subject’s attitude
score (summated rating) is the total obtained byscore (summated rating) is the total obtained by
summing over the items in the scale and dividing by thesumming over the items in the scale and dividing by the
number of items to get the average.number of items to get the average.
ExampleExample::
““My sales representative is . . . . “My sales representative is . . . . “
SDSD DD NN AA SASA
CourteousCourteous ______ ______ ______ ______
______
FriendlyFriendly ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
HelpfulHelpful ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
KnowledgeableKnowledgeable ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Metric– Metric

38. Alternative Approach to Summated Ratings scalesAlternative Approach to Summated Ratings scales ::
““When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like.”When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like.”
Strongly AgreeStrongly Agree Neither AgreeNeither Agree Disagree StronglyDisagree Strongly
Agree SomewhatAgree Somewhat or Disagreeor Disagree SomewhatSomewhat
DisagreeDisagree
11 22 33 44
55
““I always eat at new restaurants when someone tells me they are good.”I always eat at new restaurants when someone tells me they are good.”
Strongly AgreeStrongly Agree Neither AgreeNeither Agree Disagree StronglyDisagree Strongly
Agree SomewhatAgree Somewhat or Disagreeor Disagree SomewhatSomewhat
DisagreeDisagree
11 22 33 44
55
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Metric– Metric
This approach includes a separate labeled Likert scale with each itemThis approach includes a separate labeled Likert scale with each item
(statement). The summated rating is a total of the responses for all(statement). The summated rating is a total of the responses for all
the items divided by the number of items.the items divided by the number of items.

39. Numerical ScalesNumerical Scales ::
ExampleExample::
““Using a 10-point scale, where ‘1’ is ‘not at allUsing a 10-point scale, where ‘1’ is ‘not at all
important’ and ’10’ is ‘very important,’ how importantimportant’ and ’10’ is ‘very important,’ how important
is ______ in your decision to do business with ais ______ in your decision to do business with a
particular vendor.”particular vendor.”
Note: you fill in the blank with an attribute, such as reliableNote: you fill in the blank with an attribute, such as reliable
delivery, product quality, complaint resolution, and so forth.delivery, product quality, complaint resolution, and so forth.
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Metric– Metric

40. Semantic Differential ScalesSemantic Differential Scales ::
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked toA scaling technique in which respondents are asked to
check which space between a set of bipolar adjectives orcheck which space between a set of bipolar adjectives or
phrases best describes their feelings toward the stimulusphrases best describes their feelings toward the stimulus
object.object.
ExampleExample::
““My sales representative is . . . . “My sales representative is . . . . “
CourteousCourteous ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
DiscourteousDiscourteous
FriendlyFriendly ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ UnfriendlyUnfriendly
HelpfulHelpful ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ UnhelpfulUnhelpful
HonestHonest ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ DishonestDishonest
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Me– Me

41. Graphic-Ratings ScalesGraphic-Ratings Scales ::
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicateA scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicate
theirtheir
ratings of an attribute by placing a check at the appropriate pointratings of an attribute by placing a check at the appropriate point
on a line that runs from one extreme of the attribute to the other.on a line that runs from one extreme of the attribute to the other.
““Please evaluate each attribute in terms of how important thePlease evaluate each attribute in terms of how important the
attribute is to you personally (your company) by placing an “X”attribute is to you personally (your company) by placing an “X”
at the position on the horizontal line that most reflects yourat the position on the horizontal line that most reflects your
feelings.”feelings.”
Not ImportantNot Important Very ImportantVery Important
CourteousnessCourteousness __________________________________________________________________________
FriendlinessFriendliness __________________________________________________________________________
HelpfulnessHelpfulness __________________________________________________________________________
KnowledgeableKnowledgeable __________________________________________________________________________
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Metric– Metric

42. Categorical scaleCategorical scale::
Categorical scales are nominally measured opinionCategorical scales are nominally measured opinion
scales that have two or more response categories.scales that have two or more response categories.
““How satisfied are you with your current job?”How satisfied are you with your current job?”
[ ][ ] Very SatisfiedVery Satisfied
[ ][ ] Somewhat SatisfiedSomewhat Satisfied
[ ][ ] Neither Satisfied nor DissatisfiedNeither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
[ ][ ] Somewhat DissatisfiedSomewhat Dissatisfied
[ ][ ] Very DissatisfiedVery Dissatisfied
Note: Some researchers consider this a metric scale when coded 1 –Note: Some researchers consider this a metric scale when coded 1 –
5 .5 .
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Nonmet– Nonmet

43. Constant-Sum MethodConstant-Sum Method::
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to divideA scaling technique in which respondents are asked to divide
some given sum among two or more attributes on the basis ofsome given sum among two or more attributes on the basis of
their importance to them.their importance to them.
““Please divide 100 points among the following attributes inPlease divide 100 points among the following attributes in
terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.”terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.”
Courteous ServiceCourteous Service ________
Friendly ServiceFriendly Service ________
Helpful ServiceHelpful Service ________
Knowledgeable ServiceKnowledgeable Service ________
TotalTotal 100100
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Nonmet– Nonmet

44. Paired Comparison MethodPaired Comparison Method ::
A scaling technique in which respondents are givenA scaling technique in which respondents are given
pairs of stimulus objects and asked which object in apairs of stimulus objects and asked which object in a
pair they prefer most.pair they prefer most.
““Please circle the attribute describing a salesPlease circle the attribute describing a sales
representative which you consider most desirable.”representative which you consider most desirable.”
CourteousCourteous versusversus KnowledgeableKnowledgeable
FriendlyFriendly versusversus HelpfulHelpful
HelpfulHelpful versusversus CourteousCourteous
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES ––
NonmetricNonmetric

45. SortingSorting::
A scaling technique in which respondents areA scaling technique in which respondents are
asked to indicate their beliefs or opinions byasked to indicate their beliefs or opinions by
arranging objects (items) on the basis ofarranging objects (items) on the basis of
perceived importance, similarity, preferenceperceived importance, similarity, preference
or some other attribute.or some other attribute.
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES ––
NonmetricNonmetric

46. Rank Order MethodRank Order Method::
A scaling technique in which respondents are presentedA scaling technique in which respondents are presented
with several stimulus objects simultaneously and askedwith several stimulus objects simultaneously and asked
to order or rank them with respect to a specificto order or rank them with respect to a specific
characteristic.characteristic.
““Please rank the following attributes on how important eachPlease rank the following attributes on how important each
is to you in relation to a sales representative. Place a “1”is to you in relation to a sales representative. Place a “1”
beside the attribute which is most important, a “2” next tobeside the attribute which is most important, a “2” next to
the attribute that is second in importance, and so on.”the attribute that is second in importance, and so on.”
Courteous ServiceCourteous Service ______
Friendly ServiceFriendly Service ______
Helpful ServiceHelpful Service ______
Knowledgeable ServiceKnowledgeable Service ______
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES – Nonme– Nonme

47. Practical Decisions When Developing
Scales:
• Number of items (indicators) to measure aNumber of items (indicators) to measure a
concept?concept?
• Number of scale categories?Number of scale categories?
• Odd or even number of categories?Odd or even number of categories?
(Include neutral point ?)(Include neutral point ?)
• Balanced or unbalanced scales?Balanced or unbalanced scales?
• Forced or non-forced choice?Forced or non-forced choice?
(Include Don’t Know ?)(Include Don’t Know ?)
• Category labels for scales?Category labels for scales?
• Scale reliability and validity?Scale reliability and validity?
Scale DevelopmentScale Development

48. Balanced vs. UnbalancedBalanced vs. Unbalanced
ScalesScales??
BalancedBalanced::
• ““To what extent do you consider TV shows with sex andTo what extent do you consider TV shows with sex and
violence to be acceptable for teenagers to view?”violence to be acceptable for teenagers to view?”
__ Very Acceptable__ Very Acceptable
__ Somewhat Acceptable__ Somewhat Acceptable
__ Neither Acceptable or Unacceptable__ Neither Acceptable or Unacceptable
__ Somewhat Unacceptable__ Somewhat Unacceptable
__ Very Unacceptable__ Very Unacceptable
Unbalanced:Unbalanced:
__ Very Acceptable__ Very Acceptable
__ Somewhat Acceptable__ Somewhat Acceptable
__ Unacceptable__ Unacceptable
Scale DevelopmentScale Development

49. Forced or Non-ForcedForced or Non-Forced ??
• ““How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months?”How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months?”
VeryVery VeryVery
UnlikelyUnlikely LikelyLikely
11 22 33 44 55 66 __ No Opinion__ No Opinion
Scale DevelopmentScale Development

50. Choosing a Measurement ScaleChoosing a Measurement Scale ::
• Capabilities ofCapabilities of
Respondents.Respondents.
• Context of ScaleContext of Scale
Application.Application.
• Data Analysis Approach.Data Analysis Approach.
• Validity and Reliability.Validity and Reliability.
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES

51. Assessing Measurement ScalesAssessing Measurement Scales ::
• ValidityValidity
• ReliabilityReliability
MEASUREMENT SCALESMEASUREMENT SCALES
Measurement ErrorMeasurement Error = occurs when the= occurs when the
values obtained in a survey (observedvalues obtained in a survey (observed
values) are not the same as the true valuesvalues) are not the same as the true values
(population values).(population values).

52. RESEARCH DESIGN
Types of Errors:
• Nonresponse = problem definition, refusal, sampling,
etc.
• Response = respondent or interviewer.
• Data Collection Instrument:
 Construct Development.
 Scaling Measurement.
 Questionnaire Design/Sequence, etc.
• Data Analysis.
• Interpretation.

53. SECONDARY DATASECONDARY DATA
Data that has been gatheredData that has been gathered
previously for otherpreviously for other
purposes.purposes.

54. SECONDARY DATASECONDARY DATA
Secondary DataSecondary Data
IssuesIssues::
• AvailabilityAvailability
• RelevanceRelevance
• AccuracyAccuracy
• SufficiencySufficiency

55. MethodsMethods::
DependenceDependence
• Multiple RegressionMultiple Regression
• DiscriminantDiscriminant
AnalysisAnalysis
• ANOVA/MANOVAANOVA/MANOVA
InterdependenceInterdependence
• Factor AnalysisFactor Analysis
• Cluster AnalysisCluster Analysis
Data AnalysisData Analysis

56. Learning CheckpointLearning Checkpoint::
• Define a research problem to be studied.Define a research problem to be studied.
• Identify the topics /concepts that will be coveredIdentify the topics /concepts that will be covered
to answer research questions.to answer research questions.
• Identify the types of questions and/or scalingIdentify the types of questions and/or scaling
you will use.you will use.
• How will you evaluate the questions/scales you use?How will you evaluate the questions/scales you use?
• Determine the best way to collect the data.Determine the best way to collect the data.
• Present group suggestions; defend.Present group suggestions; defend.
Research Design & DataResearch Design & Data
CollectionCollection