This document discusses various research methods including descriptive research, case study, and experimental research. Descriptive research aims to examine current situations to establish norms by using methods like surveys. Case study involves an in-depth investigation of a small number of cases like individuals or groups. Experimental research aims to isolate and control conditions to observe the effects of manipulating independent variables on dependent variables.

1. Methods of Research
Dr. Jagannath K. Dange
Dept. of P G Studies and Research in Education
KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY
SHANKARAGHATTA – 577451, INDIA
E-Mail: jkdange@gmail.com

2. WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH RESEARCH
So what can we use research to do in order to gain this new
knowledge? Some of the ways it can be used one to:
1.Categorise. This involves forming a typology of objects, events or
concepts, i.e. a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can be
sorted. This can be useful in explaining which ‘things’ belong
together and how.
2.Describe. Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of
collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order to
establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to happen
again under the same circumstances.
3.Explain. This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed
to deal with complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the
facts’ in order to make sense of the myriad other elements involved,
such as human, political, social, cultural and contextual.

3. 4. Evaluate. This involves making judgements about
the quality of objects or events.
5. Compare. Two or more contrasting cases can be
examined to highlight differences and similarities
between them, leading to a better understanding of
phenomena.
6. Correlate. The relationships between two
phenomena are investigated to see whether and
how they influence each other. These are measured
as levels of association.

4. 7. Predict. This can sometimes be done in research areas
where correlations are already known. Predictions of possible
future behaviour or events are made on the basis that if there
has been a strong relationship between two or more
characteristics or events in the past, then these should exist in
similar circumstances in the future, leading to predictable
outcomes.
8. Control. Once you understand an event or situation, you may
be able to find ways to control it. For this you need to know
what the cause and effect relationships are and that you are
capable of exerting control over the vital ingredients.
You can combine two or more of these objectives in a research
project, with sometimes one objective needing to be
successfully achieved before starting the next.

5. Types of Research methods
D e s c rip tiv e
C o m p a ra tiv e
C o rre la tio n a l
C a u s a l C o m p a ra tiv e
N o n -E x p e rim e n ta l
T ru e
Q u a s i
S in g le S u b je c t
E x p e rim e n ta l
Q u a n tita tiv e
C a s e S tu d y
P h e n o m e n a o lo g y
E th n o g ra p h y
G ro u n d e d T h e o ry
Q u a lita tiv e
C o n c e p t A n a ly s is
H is to ric a l A n a ly s is
A n a ly tic a l S tu d y M ix e d M e th o d
R e s e a rc h D e s ig n s

6. Research design issues: planning research
There is no single blueprint for planning research.
Research design is governed by the notion of ‘fitness for
purpose’.
The purposes of the research determine the methodology
and design of the research.
For example, if the purpose of the research is to map the field, or to
make generalizable comments then a survey approach might be
desirable, using some form of stratified sample;
If the effects of a specific intervention are to be evaluated then
maybe an experimental or action research model is appropriate;
If an in-depth study of a particular situation or group is important
then an ethnographic model might be more appropriate.

7. RESEARCH DESIGNS
•There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the
different types of research projects.
•The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the
problems posed by the research aims.
•Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are
commonly used to collect and analyse the type of data that is generated
by the investigations.
HISTORICAL
This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of
evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past
events.
It uses primary historical data, such as archaeological remains as well as
documentary sources of the past. It is usually necessary to carry out tests
in order to check the authenticity of these sources.
Apart from informing us about what happened in previous times and re-
evaluating beliefs about the past.

8. DESCRIPTIVE
This design relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to
examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be
predicted to happen again under the same circumstances. ‘Observation’ can take
many forms. Depending on the type of information sought, people can be
interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even sounds and
smells recorded. The scale of the research is influenced by two major factors: the
level of complexity of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.
CORRELATION
This design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts. There are
two broad classifications of relational statements: an association between two
concepts – where there is some kind of influence of one on the other; and a causal
relationship – where one causes changes to occur in the other.
Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’
relationship. The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the variable
that is affected is referred to as the ‘dependent variable’.
The correlation between two concepts can either be none (no correlation);
positive (where an increase in one results in the increase in the other, or decrease
results in a decrease); or negative (where the increase in one results in the
decrease in the other or vice versa). The degree of association is often measurable.

9. COMPARATIVE This design is used to compare past and present or different
parallel situations, particularly when the researcher has no control over events.
Analogy is used to identify similarities in order to predict results – assuming that if
two events are similar in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in
others too.
EXPERIMENTAL Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every
relevant condition which determines the events investigated and then observes
the effects when the conditions are manipulated. At its simplest, changes are
made to an independent variable and the effects are observed on a dependent
variable – i.e. cause and effect.
SIMULATION Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and
simplified form (model) of a system, which can be manipulated to gauge effects.
It is similar to experimental design in the respect of this manipulation, but it
provides a more artificial environment in that it does work with original materials
at the same scale. Models can be mathematical (number crunching in a computer)
or physical, working with two- or three-dimensional materials. The performance of
the model must be checked and calibrated against the real system to check that
the results are reliable. Simulation enables theoretical situations to be tested –
what if?

10. EVALUATION : This descriptive type of research is specifically designed to deal with
complex social issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’, by trying to
make sense of the numerous human, political, social, cultural and contextual
elements involved.
The results are generally used to prescribe changes to improve and develop the
situation.
ACTION : Essentially, this is an ‘on the spot’ procedure, principally designed to deal
with a specific problem found in a particular situation. There is no attempt made
to separate the problem from its context in order to study it in isolation. The
conclusions from the findings are applied immediately, and further monitored to
gauge their effectiveness. Action research depends mainly on observation and
behavioural data. Because it is so bound up in a particular situation, it is difficult to
generalize the results.
ETHNOLOGICAL : Ethnological research focuses on people. In this approach, the
researcher is interested in how the subjects of the research interpret their own
behavior rather than imposing a theory from outside. It takes place in the
undisturbed natural settings of the subjects’ environment. It regards the context
to be as equally important as the actions it studies, and attempts to represent the
totality of the social, cultural and economic situation.

11. FEMINIST
This is more of a perspective than a research design that involves
theory and analysis that highlight the differences between men’s and
women’s lives. However, everyone is male or female, so value neutrality
is impossible as no researcher practises research outside his or her
system of values. No specific methods are seen to be particularly
feminist, but the methodology used is informed by theories of gender
relations.
CULTURAL
Many of the prevailing theoretical debates (e.g. post-modernism, post-
structuralism etc.) are concerned with the subjects of language and
cultural interpretation. Cultural research provides methodologies that
allow a consistent analysis of cultural texts so that they can be
compared, replicated, disproved and generalized.
Examples of approaches to the interpretation of cultural texts are:
content analysis, semiotics and discourse analysis.
TV news programmes, cocktail parties etc., and informal such as how people dress
or converse.

12. Research Methods are the tools
and techniques for doing research.

13. Types of Research-Broad classification
-Fundamental v/s Applied /Action : development of
theories,discover a solution for practical problem, finding solution for
classroom problems.
-Descriptive v/s Analytical : surveys, fact finding
enquiries,
ex post facto studies, comparative and correlational studies :
analyse
the information available and evaluate the material
- Quantitative v/s Qualitative
- Conceptual v/s Empirical : develop new concepts or
reinterpret existing ones: relies on experience , observation,
experimentation etc.,
- Other Types : Historical, exploratory, laboratory research,

14. Methods of Research
Quantitative: Verify theory(positivist approach-)
Qualitative: Generate Theory(Interpretivist approach)
Mixed: Integrate the findings and draws inferences using
both methods.
Data collected concurrently or sequentially, methods
mixed in such a way that has complementary strengths
and non overlapping weakness.
Verify and generate theory same time.

17. • Historical - What was
• Descriptive (sometimes called Survey) –
What is
• Experimental – What can be

20. Descriptive research is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of
the phenomena to describe "what exists" with
respect to variables or conditions in a
situation.
The methods involved range from the survey
which describes the status quo,
the correlation study which investigates the
relationship between variables,
developmental studies which seek to
determine changes over time.

21. Descriptive Research
• Basic characteristics of descriptive research
are:
– It provides a descriptive analysis of a given
population or sample.
– Qualitative, quantitative or a combination of
both types of data can be presented.
– Hypotheses or broad research questions are
used .
– Study on current issues
– variables will be compared.

22. Descriptive Research
• Data Sources
–Persons such as teachers, students,
parents, administrators, etc.
–Documents such as policy
statements, curricular guidelines.
–Records such as student
transcripts.

23. Descriptive Research
• Research Tools
–Structured interviews.
–Structured questionnaires
–Standardized tests.

24. Survey method
• Sur/sor –Over
• Veeir/vor- to see
• To look over or to over see
• Critical inspection
• Employed to collect detailed descriptions of
existing phenomena in order to justify current
conditions and practices, or to make more
intelligent plans for improving them.

25. Characteristics of survey method
• Data is gathered from a relatively large
number of sample
• Provides information useful to solution of
local problems
• Suggests course for future actions or
development

26. Types of surveys
• Testing survey
• Institutional survey (School)
• Document survey
• Survey appraisal studies
• Follow up studies
1. Testing survey
Concerned with evaluating the academic
achievement or any psychological traits in students
of schools and relationships of associated variables,
e.g. the baseline survey of achievement of primary
school students at class III, VIII conducted by NCERT

27. 2. Institutional survey (School)
Comprehensive study of existing educational
conditions in order to determine the overall
effectiveness of the school.
• the administrative provisions, infrastructural
facilities,
• teaching aids, teachers’ qualification and
experience,
• school cost, etc.
• the educational achievement of pupils,
• curriculum and instructional strategies,
• financial policies and procedure,
• staffing pattern, etc.

28. 3. Document studies
Document or documentary frequency studies are
undertaken to identify and count certain
characteristics found in the documents with respect
scheduled criteria e.g. the type of errors in
instructional plans, the element of bias or
propaganda in a history textbook
4. Survey appraisal
• Involves jury technique whereby the judgment of a
number of persons with regard to certain individuals,
features or specimens is pooled to secure a final
verdict e.g. should sex education be a part of
secondary school curriculum?
• Check lists and rating scales are usually adopted as
tools of gathering data

29. 5. Follow up studies
Concerns with studies of individuals or institutions after
they have completed or worked over a period of
time.
• Study of the impact of a multi-media package in
enhancing school enrolment in a region.
• Can serve the purpose of proving the efficiency of an
institution or a program of work, and provide future
directions for improvement

30. Tools used in data collection
• Questionnaire
• Interview schedule
• Interview
• Rating scale
• Attitude scale
• Observation
• Check list
• Score card
• Tests
• Document analysis
• Pro-forma

32. CASE STUDY

33. INTRODUCTION
The case study or case history method is
based on intensive study of the comparatively
fewer persons, sometimes confined to a very
small number of cases.
The case study is an intensive investigation
of a social unit. The social unit may be an
individual, a family, a school, a group of
delinquents, dropouts, or any teenage gang.

34. DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY
• P.V. YOUNG: “A fairly exhaustive study of a
person or group is called a life of case
history”.
“Case study is a method of exploring
and analyzing the life of a social unit be that
unit a person, a family, institution, culture
group, or even an entire community.”

35. types of case study
Yin (1984) identifies three such types in terms of
their outcomes:
(a)Exploratory (as a pilot to other studies or
research questions);
(b) Descriptive (providing narrative accounts);
(c)Explanatory (testing theories).

36. Merriam (1988) identifies three types:
(a)Descriptive (narrative accounts);
(b)Interpretative (developing conceptual
categories inductively in order to examine
initial assumptions);
(c) Evaluative (explaining and judging).

37. Stake (1994) identifies three main types of case
study:
(a) Intrinsic case studies (studies that are
undertaken in order to understand the
particular case in question);
(b) Instrumental case studies (examining a
particular case in order to gain insight into an
issue or a theory);
(c) collective case studies (groups of individual
studies that are undertaken to gain a fuller
picture).

38. STEPS OF THE CASE STUDY
• Determine the present status of the case
• Formulation of Hypothesis
• Verification of the Hypothesis
• Validation of the Diagnosis
• Follow-up of the case
• Reporting the case study

39. COLLECTION OF DATA
Marshall and Rossman (1999) point to
three techniques that are the critical
procedures for collecting qualitative data.
• Observation
• Interviews
• Review of Documents

40. Strengths
1 The results are more easily understood by a wide audience (including
non-academics) as they are frequently written in everyday, non-
professional language.
2 They can be undertaken by a single researcher without needing a full
research team.
3 They are strong on reality.
4 They provide insights into other, similar situations and cases, thereby
assisting interpretation of other similar cases.
Weaknesses
1 The results may not be generalizable except where other
readers/researchers see their application.
2 They are not easily open to cross-checking, hence they may be selective,
biased, personal and subjective.
3 They are prone to problems of observer bias.

46. Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

47. If x, then y; if frustration, then aggression…the
researcher uses some method to measure x
and then observes y to see if associated
variation occurs.
(Kerlinger, 1970)

48. • The essential feature of experimental research
is that investigators deliberately control and
manipulate the conditions which determine
the events in which they are interested.
• At its simplest, an experiment involves making
a change in the value of one variable—called
the independent variable—and observing the
effect of that change on another variable—
called the dependent variable.

49. Ex: to investigate the properties of a new fertilizer that
farmers could use on their cereal crops, let us say wheat
• The scientist would take the bag of wheat seed and randomly split it into two
equal parts.
• One part would be grown under normal existing conditions— controlled and
measured amounts of soil, warmth, water and light and no other factors. This
would be called the control group.
• The other part would be grown under the same conditions—the same
controlled and measured amounts of soil, warmth, water and light as the
control group, but, additionally, the new fertilizer. Experimental group.
• Then, four months later, the two groups are examined and their growth
measured.
• The control group has grown half a metre and each ear of wheat is in place but
the seeds are small.
• The experimental group, by contrast, has grown half a metre as well but has
significantly more seeds on each ear, the seeds are larger, fuller and more
healthy.
• The scientist concludes that, of the new fertilizer that caused the experimental
group to flourish so well.

50. The key factors in the experiment were:
1. The random allocation of the whole bag of wheat into two
matched groups (the control and the experimental group),
involving the initial measurement of the size of the wheat to
ensure that it was the same for both groups (i.e. the pretest);
2. The identification of key variables (soil, warmth, water, and light);
3. The control of the key variables (the same amounts to each
group);
4. The giving of the special treatment (the intervention) to the
experimental group whilst holding every other variable constant
for the two groups;
5. The final measurement of yield and growth (the post-test);
6. The comparison of one group with another;
7. the stage of generalization—that this new fertilizer improves yield
and growth under a given set of conditions.

53. MIXED Methods of
Research

54. How would you combine two types
of data?
Qualitative
Text Data
• This is a sample of a
text file of words that
might be collected on
interview transcripts,
observation
fieldnotes, or
optically-scanned
documents.
Quantitative Numeric
Data
• 2 3 4 2 5 2 3 1 1 2 3
4 2 3 3 2 1 1 1 5 3 4
1 2 3 1 4 4 5 5 4 1 2
1 4 3 3 5 1 4 2 3 1 5
5 2 2 1 5 3 5 1 3 1 5
3 2 2 5 1 3 2 4 4 3 1
2 4 2 2 4 1 5 5 4 2 1
5

55. Framework for viewing perspectives on
mixed methods
55
Quantitative
Data
Qualitative Data
Methodology
Method
Paradigm
Perspective Use of mixed methods
in other designs
Mixed Methods

56. 56
• Mixed methods research is both a method and
methodology for conducting research that involves
collecting, analyzing, and integrating quantitative
and qualitative research in a single study or a
longitudinal program of inquiry.
• The purpose of this form of research is that both
qualitative and quantitative research, in
combination, provide a better understanding of a
research problem or issue than either research
approach alone.

57. Collecting both quantitative and
qualitative data
• Quantitative
data
–Instruments
–Checklists
–Records
• Qualitative data
–Interviews
–Observations
–Documents
–Audio-visual
materials
57

58. Quantitative and qualitative
data analysis
• Qualitative analysis
– Use text and
images,
– For coding
– For theme
development
– For relating
themes
• Quantitative analysis
– Use statistical
analysis,
– For description
– For comparing
groups
– For relating
variables
58

59. Mixing or linking the data
59
Results
Connect data:
Results
Converge
data:
Embed the data:
Quan data
Qual data
Qual Quan
Qual Quan

62. Mixing the quan and qual data
Type of Mixing Type of Design Why Mixing Occurs Where Mixing
Occurs in Research
Process
Connecting Sequential One phase builds
on the other
Between data
analysis (Phase 1)
and data collection
(Phase 2)
Merging Concurrent Bring results
together
After analysis of
both quan and qual
– typically in
discussion
Embedding Sequential or
Concurrent
Either building or
bringing results
together
Either between
phases or in
discussion after
analysis
62

63. 63
Sequential designs
QUAN
Data &
Results
QUAN
Data &
Results
Interpretation
Interpretation
qual
Data &
Results
qual
Data &
ResultsFollowing up
QUAL
Data &
Results
QUAL
Data &
Results
quan
Data &
Results
quan
Data &
Results Interpretation
Interpretation
Building to
Before-
intervention
qual
Before-
intervention
qual
QUAN
Intervention
Trial
QUAN
Intervention
Trial
After-
intervention
qual
After-
intervention
qual Interpretation
Interpretation
Exploratory Design
Explanatory Design
Sequential Embedded Design

64. 64
QUAN
Data &
Result
s
QUAN
Data &
Result
s Interpretat
ion
Interpretat
ion
QUAL
Data &
Result
s
QUAL
Data &
Result
s
QUAN
Pre-test
Data &
Results
QUAN
Pre-test
Data &
Results
QUAN
Post-
test Data
&
Results
QUAN
Post-
test Data
&
Results
Intervention
qual
Process
qual
Process
Interpreta
tion
Interpreta
tion
Triangulation Design
Embedded Design
Concurrent Mixed Methods Designs

66. 66
Process – collection
and analysis of qualitative
data
(before, during, after trial)
Embedded research design
Experiment
Intervention
QUAN
Data collection
Pre-test
QUAN
Data collection
Post-test

68. Books to be referred
• Best, John W. (1977): Research in Education. New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India.
• John Gerring (2007) Case Study Research: Principles and
Practice. Cambridge University Press, New York.
• Kerlinger, F. N. (1986) Foundations of Behavioral Research
(third edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison(2007 )
Research Methods in Education, Routledge Publication, UK
• Van Dalen, D.B. (1973): Understanding Educational Research.
New York McGraw Hill Book Company.

69. ‘To understand is hard.
Once one understands, action is easy.’
(Sun Yat Sen, 1866–1925)

70. Thank You
Dr. Jagannath K. Dange
Department of Education
Kuvempu University
Shankaraghatta
Dist: Shimoga
jkdange@gmail.com
http://jkdange.blogspot.com