1. Research, The Research
Process, Research
Methodology
LECTURE 2 (BIOLOGY 199)
MARILEN M. PARUNGAO
2. RESEARCH
viewed as a problem-solving activity
follows a logical series of steps
(research process) which makes it
different from other problem-solving
activities
3. Research Methodology
(Leedy, 1997)
the core concept underlying the research process
the methodology controls the study itself and the processes needed to
realize the study
the methodology controls and dictates the acquisition of data,
arranges them in logical relationships, sets up a means of refining the
raw data, contrives an approach so that meanings that lie below the
surface of those data become manifest, and finally issues a
conclusion or series of conclusions that lead to an expansion of
knowledge
the entire process is a unified effort as well as an appreciation of its
component parts
4. The Process of Research:
Logical Steps
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION (LOOKING FOR A TOPIC)
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCHABILITY OF THE PROBLEM
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
5. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH
PROJECT
REQUIREMENT: TO STATE THE
PROBLEM WITH UNWAVERING
CLARITY, PRECISION
WHAT IF I SIMPLY CANNOT FIND A
GOOD PROBLEM?
6. IDENTIFICATION OF THE
PROBLEM
WHERE TO FIND INTERESTING PROBLEMS...
JOURNALS, BOOKS, ABSTRACTS (LIBRARY/TRUSTED LINKS)
RECOMMENDATION SECTIONS OF THESES AND DISSERTATIONS/JOURNAL
ARTICLES
IDEAS FROM YOUR MENTOR OR PROFESSOR
IDEAS FROM SEMINARS, RESEARCH COLLOQUIA AND CONFERENCES
PERSONAL/FAMILY EXPERIENCES
RARE/INTERESTING OCCURRENCES WHICH NEEDS TO BE EXPLAINED
TOP TEN CAUSES OF MORTALITY/MORBIDITY IN YOUR LOCALITY
7. CHARACTERISTIC OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
SHOULD BE OF GREAT INTEREST TO YOU
USEFUL FOR THE CONCERNED PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR FIELD
POSSESS NOVELTY
LAYS FOUNDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH IN THE FIELD
CAN BE COMPLETED IN THE ALLOTTED TIME DESIRED
MUST USE APPROPRIATE AND UP-TO-DATE TECHNOOLOGY
DOES NOT CARRY ETHICAL OR MORAL IMPEDIMENTS
8. A GOOD RESEARCH
PROBLEM SHOULD BE
SMART
SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE,
REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND
9. IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY
OF RESEARCH?
EXTERNAL FACTORS
NOVELTY AND AVOIDANCE OF
UNNECESSARY REPETITION
PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE
PROBLEM
10. IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY
OF RESEARCH?
PERSONAL FACTORS
TRAINING AND PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS
TIME REQUIREMENTS
AVAILABILITY OF SUBJECTS AND EQUIPMENTS
SPECIALIZED WORKING CONDITIONS
HAZARDS TO BE ENCOUNTERED
RESEARCH FUNDS (COST)
11. STATING YOUR RESEARCH
PROBLEM
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST
BE STATED IN A CLEAR AND
COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL
SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS AS
POSSIBLE!
12. WHAT’S WRONG WITH
THESE RESEARCH
BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS
EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON EMBRYO
E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY
13. FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE
INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO
CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT OR
A QUESTION
SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF A
RESEARCH PROJECT
SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
14. SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
TO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED PROTOCOL TO DETECT
FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM SAMPLES USING PCR
TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF ORAL ADMINISTRATION
OF PROBIOTICS IN MANAGING OBESITY
TO ESTABLISH THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANT
HEIGHT AND FERTILIZER CONCENTRATION IN CORN
16. GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
a generic statement which describes in broad terms
what the study wishes to accomplish
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
contain indicators on how to accomplish the stated
objectives and therefore, gives direction to the research
process; identifies in detail and measureable terms
the aims of the research study
17. EXAMPLE
General Objectives:
To investigate the histological effects of neem seed kernel extract on
mouse testis
Specific Objectives
To determine/identify the changes in testes histology due to neem seed
kernel extract (NSKE) exposure
To determine the relationship between neem seed kernel extract (NSKE)
and occurrence of abnormal sperm morphology
To provide a feasible physiological basis for the anti-libido property of neem
extract
18. REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
After the research problem has been identified and the objectives
formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.
Two Important Uses:
•
To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the
research to be conducted relative to:
- who have done the work on the problem area
- what has been found
- research design utilized
- statistical analysis applied
- problem met and how were they resolved
•
To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual
framework based on previous research studies done.
19. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing the
scope of his study without becoming concerned
with a trivial problem
Assumptions, restrictions and limitation must be
explicit with respect to the coverage of the
study
Helps focus attention on valid objectives, &
helps minimize the dangers of over
generalization
20. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
DELIMITING THE PROBLEM
the scope of the problem
time allotted for the conduct of the study
cost and funding
cooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or
researchers
availability of research subjects
availability of equipment needed
ethical considerations
21. EXAMPLE
Impact of continuing education for health workers
The effect of continuing education activities conducted by the
Department of Health (DOH) for its staff on their performance
The effect of workshops/seminars conducted by the DOH for
its staff on their ability to manage the different programs of the
DOH in the field
To determine the effect of the Master Trainor’s Course
conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the participants to
plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate the training programs
they conduct in the field
23. DEFINITION
A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,
1976)
States the researcher’s expectations concerning
the relationship between two or more variables in
the research problem
Testable statement of a potential relationship
between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)
24. CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Stated in declarative form
Stated in definite terms, the relationship between
variables
Should reflect the theory or literature that it is
based on
Should be brief and to the point
Should be testable
25. TWO TYPES OF
HYPOTHESIS
“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”
26. THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
Ho
Never true or established but can be possibly
disproved in the course of the experimentation
No difference relationship between the variables we
want to study
May act as a starting point and as a benchmark
against which the researcher will measure the actual
outcome of the study once the researcher has
collected the data
28. EXAMPLES
Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging
HA : Vitamin C does inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50%
compared to placebo
Ho : Cerebral artery bypass is as effective as standard
medical therapy
HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than standard
medical therapy
29. TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS
Non-directional – reflects a difference
between groups, but the direction of the
difference (unequal) is NOT specified
Directional – reflects a difference
between groups and the difference is
specified
30. IDENTIFICATION OF
RESEARCH VARIABLES
Variable – any trait/characteristic that
manifest differences irrespective of whether
the differences are qualitative or quantitative
Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sex
Quantitative – weight, height, length, light
intensity, temperature
31. TYPES OF VARIABLE
Independent – the treatment variable
variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects of
this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent variable)
the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the
outcome
Dependent – outcome variables in a research study
refers to the outcome or response variable
Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to be
the effect of the independent variable being considered
Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized, cancelled
out or equated for all conditions
32. TRY THIS...
PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide
loading on plant morphology
Identify the:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Intervening/extraneous variable
33. CONSTRUCTION OF A
RESEARCH DESIGN
represents the “plan of attack” of the researcher
in answering the research objectives
in obtaining all the relevant data in relation to objectives and hypothesis
the specific areas of concern in the choice of a research design are the
following
selection and number of subjects
control and manipulation of relevant variables
establishment of criteria to evaluate outcomes
instrumentation
maximization of internal and external validity
34. FACTORS TO CONSIDER
research objectives
feasibility
ethical considerations
economy and efficiency
internal and external validity
35. INTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to extent to which investigator is able to
control the different biases affecting the study
and in the end, measures what he really intends
to measure
Did the experimental treatment really bring about
a change in the dependent variable?
Did the independent variable make a significant
difference?
36. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to the extent to which the
investigator is able to generalize the
results of his study
Are the results applicable to groups
and environment outside of
experimental setting?
37. DESIGN THE TOOLS FOR
DATA COLLECTION
Experimentation
Questionnaire
Interview schedule and forms
38. DESIGN THE PLAN FOR
DATA ANALYSIS
A number of researchers think about data analysis only
after all data has been collected
Consequences:
Some very important variables in study are either not
measured at all or collected using a measurement
scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data
analysis
Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable,
given the nature of the data that were collected
39. THE SOLUTION...
A good practice is to construct a dummy
table
Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn
to help the investigator conceptualize how
the data is going to be organized and
presented after it has been collected
40. COLLECTION OF DATA
Essential phase of the research process
Researcher employs specialized tools,
instruments and procedures depending
upon the method designed for such
activity
41. DATA PROCESSING
Process the information gathered to
prepare for and facilitate analysis and
interpretation of data.
Editing of data collection forms and
coding of responses are procedures
usually done in this stage
42. DATA ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
Involves quantification, description, and
classification of data
Statistics play a major role
Researcher must be familiar with basic
statistical concepts and procedures and must
know their limitations as well as the areas
where they may be appropriately applied
43. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Researcher summarizes the discussion
on the research findings and make a
clear concluding remarks
Researcher identifies major points that
were not raised in the present study and
could lay the framework for future
undertakings
44. WRITING OF RESEARCH
REPORT
Researcher prepares report of different
activities he has undertaken together with
his findings
Report must be well-organized and
presented in proper form and style
The basic principles of technical report
writing are followed
45. REPORT OF RESEARCH
FINDINGS
Publish findings in scientific journals and
news releases
Presentation of results in scientific
meetings
