Methods of data collection

METHODS OF DATAMETHODS OF DATA
COLLECTIONCOLLECTION
SYED MD. SAJJAD KABIRSYED MD. SAJJAD KABIR UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONGUNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG

Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory
Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone
Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,
Topics CoveredTopics Covered
 What is Data Collection?What is Data Collection?
 Types of DataTypes of Data
 Issues to be Considered for Data CollectionIssues to be Considered for Data Collection
 Methods of Primary Data Collection:Methods of Primary Data Collection:
Questionnaire Method, Interviews Method,Questionnaire Method, Interviews Method,
Focus Group Discussions (FGD), ObservationFocus Group Discussions (FGD), Observation
Method, Survey Method, Case StudyMethod, Survey Method, Case Study
Method, Diaries MethodMethod, Diaries Method
 Methods of Secondary Data CollectionMethods of Secondary Data Collection
 Methods of Legal Research.Methods of Legal Research.
2

What is Data Collection?What is Data Collection?
Process of gathering andProcess of gathering and
measuring information onmeasuring information on
variables of interest, in anvariables of interest, in an
established systematic fashionestablished systematic fashion
that enables one to answerthat enables one to answer
stated research questions,stated research questions,
test hypotheses, and evaluatetest hypotheses, and evaluate
outcomes.outcomes.
3

Types of Data
Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative DataQualitative Data
 Data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptiveData are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive
or nominal in nature.or nominal in nature.
 Data collected are in the form of words andData collected are in the form of words and
sentences. Often such data captures feelings,sentences. Often such data captures feelings,
emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.
 Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ andQualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and
‘‘why’ of a program and tend to use unstructuredwhy’ of a program and tend to use unstructured
methods of data collection to fully explore the topic.methods of data collection to fully explore the topic.
 Findings cannot be generalized to participants outsideFindings cannot be generalized to participants outside
of the program.of the program.
Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative DataQualitative Data
 Data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptiveData are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive
or nominal in nature.or nominal in nature.
 Data collected are in the form of words andData collected are in the form of words and
sentences. Often such data captures feelings,sentences. Often such data captures feelings,
emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.
 Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ andQualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and
‘‘why’ of a program and tend to use unstructuredwhy’ of a program and tend to use unstructured
methods of data collection to fully explore the topic.methods of data collection to fully explore the topic.
 Findings cannot be generalized to participants outsideFindings cannot be generalized to participants outside
4

Quantitative DataQuantitative Data
 Data is numerical in nature and can beData is numerical in nature and can be
mathematically computed.mathematically computed.
 Data measure uses different scales, whichData measure uses different scales, which
can be classified as nominal scale, ordinalcan be classified as nominal scale, ordinal
scale, interval scale and ratio scale.scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
 Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’
 They use a systematic standardizedThey use a systematic standardized
approach and employ methods such asapproach and employ methods such as
surveys and ask questions.surveys and ask questions.
Quantitative DataQuantitative Data
 Data is numerical in nature and can beData is numerical in nature and can be
mathematically computed.mathematically computed.
 Data measure uses different scales, whichData measure uses different scales, which
can be classified as nominal scale, ordinalcan be classified as nominal scale, ordinal
scale, interval scale and ratio scale.scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
 Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’
 They use a systematic standardizedThey use a systematic standardized
approach and employ methods such asapproach and employ methods such as
surveys and ask questions.surveys and ask questions.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
Types of Data
5

Mixed MethodsMixed Methods
 Mixed methods approach as design, combining bothMixed methods approach as design, combining both
qualitative and quantitative research data, techniquesqualitative and quantitative research data, techniques
and methods within a single research framework.and methods within a single research framework.
 A number of different types of methods in a studyA number of different types of methods in a study
or at different points within a study, or, using aor at different points within a study, or, using a
mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.
 Mixed methods encompass multifaceted approachesMixed methods encompass multifaceted approaches
that combine to capitalize on strengths and reducethat combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce
weaknesses that stem from using a single researchweaknesses that stem from using a single research
design.design.
 Using this approach to gather and evaluate dataUsing this approach to gather and evaluate data
may assist to increase the validity and reliability ofmay assist to increase the validity and reliability of
the research.the research.
Mixed MethodsMixed Methods
 Mixed methods approach as design, combining bothMixed methods approach as design, combining both
qualitative and quantitative research data, techniquesqualitative and quantitative research data, techniques
and methods within a single research framework.and methods within a single research framework.
 A number of different types of methods in a studyA number of different types of methods in a study
or at different points within a study, or, using aor at different points within a study, or, using a
mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.
 Mixed methods encompass multifaceted approachesMixed methods encompass multifaceted approaches
that combine to capitalize on strengths and reducethat combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce
weaknesses that stem from using a single researchweaknesses that stem from using a single research
design.design.
 Using this approach to gather and evaluate dataUsing this approach to gather and evaluate data
may assist to increase the validity and reliability ofmay assist to increase the validity and reliability of
the research.the research.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
Types of Data
6

Primary DataPrimary Data
 Data that has been collected from first-Data that has been collected from first-
hand-experience.hand-experience.
 Primary data has not been published yetPrimary data has not been published yet
and is more reliable, authentic andand is more reliable, authentic and
objective.objective.
Sources of Primary DataSources of Primary Data
• ExperimentsExperiments
• SurveySurvey
• QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
• ObservationsObservations
• InterviewInterview
Primary DataPrimary Data
 Data that has been collected from first-Data that has been collected from first-
hand-experience.hand-experience.
 Primary data has not been published yetPrimary data has not been published yet
and is more reliable, authentic andand is more reliable, authentic and
objective.objective.
Sources of Primary DataSources of Primary Data
• ExperimentsExperiments
• SurveySurvey
• QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
• ObservationsObservations
• InterviewInterviewReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
Types of Data
7

Secondary DataSecondary Data
 Data collected from a source that has alreadyData collected from a source that has already
been published in any form.been published in any form.
 The review of literature in any research isThe review of literature in any research is
based on secondary data.based on secondary data.
 It is collected by someone else for some otherIt is collected by someone else for some other
purpose (but being utilized by the investigatorpurpose (but being utilized by the investigator
for another purpose).for another purpose).
Sources of Secondary DataSources of Secondary Data
■■BooksBooks ■■RecordsRecords ■■BiographiesBiographies ■■NewspapersNewspapers ■■PublishedPublished
censuses or other statistical datacensuses or other statistical data ■■Data archivesData archives
■■Internet articlesInternet articles ■■Research articles by otherResearch articles by other
researchers (journals)researchers (journals) ■■Databases, etc.Databases, etc.
Secondary DataSecondary Data
 Data collected from a source that has alreadyData collected from a source that has already
been published in any form.been published in any form.
 The review of literature in any research isThe review of literature in any research is
based on secondary data.based on secondary data.
 It is collected by someone else for some otherIt is collected by someone else for some other
purpose (but being utilized by the investigatorpurpose (but being utilized by the investigator
for another purpose).for another purpose).
Sources of Secondary DataSources of Secondary Data
■■BooksBooks ■■RecordsRecords ■■BiographiesBiographies ■■NewspapersNewspapers ■■PublishedPublished
censuses or other statistical datacensuses or other statistical data ■■Data archivesData archives
■■Internet articlesInternet articles ■■Research articles by otherResearch articles by other
researchers (journals)researchers (journals) ■■Databases, etc.Databases, etc.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
Types of Data
8

Issues to be Considered for Data CollectionIssues to be Considered for Data Collection
 Norms promote the aims of research, such asNorms promote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
 Research involves cooperation and coordinationResearch involves cooperation and coordination
among many different people in differentamong many different people in different
disciplines and institutions, ethical standardsdisciplines and institutions, ethical standards
promote the values that are essential topromote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability,collaborative work, such as trust, accountability,
mutual respect, and fairness.mutual respect, and fairness.
 Ethical norms help to ensure that researchers canEthical norms help to ensure that researchers can
be held accountable to the public.be held accountable to the public.
 Norms of research promote a variety of otherNorms of research promote a variety of other
important moral and social values, such as socialimportant moral and social values, such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare,responsibility, human rights, animal welfare,
compliance with the law, and health and safety.compliance with the law, and health and safety.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
9

Ethical Norms in ResearchEthical Norms in Research
• HonestyHonesty
• ObjectivityObjectivity
• IntegrityIntegrity
• CarefulnessCarefulness
• OpennessOpenness
• Respect forRespect for
IntellectualIntellectual
PropertyProperty
• ConfidentialityConfidentiality
• ResponsibleResponsible
• ResponsibleResponsible
MentoringMentoring
• Respect forRespect for
ColleaguesColleagues
• Social ResponsibilitySocial Responsibility
• Non-DiscriminationNon-Discrimination
• CompetenceCompetence
• Animal CareAnimal Care
• LegalityLegality
• Human SubjectsHuman Subjects
Ethical principles that various codes address -Ethical principles that various codes address -
10

Methods of Primary Data Collection
 Data collect using qualitative and quantitativeData collect using qualitative and quantitative
methods.methods.
 The data are unique to research and untilThe data are unique to research and until
publish no one else has access to it.publish no one else has access to it.
There are many methods of collecting primary data. The main methods include -There are many methods of collecting primary data. The main methods include -
 QuestionnairesQuestionnaires
 InterviewsInterviews
 Focus group interviewsFocus group interviews
 ObservationObservation
 SurveySurvey
 Case-studiesCase-studies
 Diaries, etc.Diaries, etc.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
11

Questionnaire MethodQuestionnaire Method
A questionnaire is a research instrument consistingA questionnaire is a research instrument consisting
of a series of questions and other prompts for theof a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents.purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables,Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables,
could for instance include questions on –could for instance include questions on –
• preferences (e.g. political party)preferences (e.g. political party)
• behaviors (e.g. food consumption)behaviors (e.g. food consumption)
• facts (e.g. gender).facts (e.g. gender).
Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either aQuestionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a
scale or index, include for instance questions that measure -scale or index, include for instance questions that measure -
• latent traits (e.g. personality traits such aslatent traits (e.g. personality traits such as
extroversion)extroversion)
• attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)
• an index (e.g. Social Economic Status).an index (e.g. Social Economic Status).
12

Question TypesQuestion Types
 Open-ended: asks the respondent to formulate hisOpen-ended: asks the respondent to formulate his
own answer. It is coded into a response scaleown answer. It is coded into a response scale
afterwards.afterwards.
 Closed-ended: respondent pick an answer from aClosed-ended: respondent pick an answer from a
given number of options.given number of options.
Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished –Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished –
• Dichotomous: respondent has two options.Dichotomous: respondent has two options.
• Nominal-polytomous: respondent has more than twoNominal-polytomous: respondent has more than two
unordered options.unordered options.
• Ordinal-polytomous: respondent has more than twoOrdinal-polytomous: respondent has more than two
ordered options.ordered options.
• Continuous (Bounded): respondent is presented with aContinuous (Bounded): respondent is presented with a
continuous scale.continuous scale.
13

Question sequenceQuestion sequence
Questions should flow logically from one to the next. The order is as follows -Questions should flow logically from one to the next. The order is as follows -
• ScreensScreens:: to find out early whether or not someone shouldto find out early whether or not someone should
complete the questionnaire.complete the questionnaire.
• Warm-upsWarm-ups:: simple to answer, help capture interest in thesimple to answer, help capture interest in the
survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives.survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives.
• TransitionsTransitions:: used to make different areas flow wellused to make different areas flow well
together.together.
• SkipsSkips:: questions similar to “If yes, then answer questionquestions similar to “If yes, then answer question
3. If no, then continue to question 5”.3. If no, then continue to question 5”.
• DifficultDifficult:: questions are towards the end becausequestions are towards the end because
respondent is in “response mode”.respondent is in “response mode”.
• Changing FormulaChanging Formula:: Classification or demographic questionClassification or demographic question
should be at the end because typically they can feel likeshould be at the end because typically they can feel like
personal questions which will make respondentspersonal questions which will make respondents
uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.
14

Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item ConstructionBasic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction
• Use statements which are interpreted in the same way byUse statements which are interpreted in the same way by
all population.all population.
• Use statements where persons have different opinions orUse statements where persons have different opinions or
traits will give different answers.traits will give different answers.
• Think of having an “open” answer category after a list ofThink of having an “open” answer category after a list of
possible answers.possible answers.
• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or doubleUse positive statements and avoid negatives or double
negatives.negatives.
• Do not make assumptions about the respondent.Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
• Use clear and comprehensible wording, easilyUse clear and comprehensible wording, easily
understandable for all educational levels.understandable for all educational levels.
• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Avoid items that contain more than one question per item.Avoid items that contain more than one question per item.
• Question should not be biased or even leading theQuestion should not be biased or even leading the
participant towards an answer.participant towards an answer.
15

Questionnaire Administration ModesQuestionnaire Administration Modes
 Face-to-face:Face-to-face: items are presented orally.items are presented orally.
 Paper-and-pencil:Paper-and-pencil: items are presented onitems are presented on
paper.paper.
 Computerized:Computerized: items are presented on theitems are presented on the
computer.computer.
 Adaptive computerized:Adaptive computerized: a selection of itemsa selection of items
is presented on the computer, and based onis presented on the computer, and based on
the answers on those items, the computerthe answers on those items, the computer
selects following items optimized for theselects following items optimized for the
testee’s estimated ability or trait.testee’s estimated ability or trait.
16

Concerns with QuestionnairesConcerns with Questionnaires
 Consider the order in which questions areConsider the order in which questions are
presented.presented.
 Sensitive questions, such as questions aboutSensitive questions, such as questions about
income, drug use, or sexual activity, should beincome, drug use, or sexual activity, should be
put at the end of the survey.put at the end of the survey.
 Putting routine questions, such as age, gender,Putting routine questions, such as age, gender,
and marital status, at the end of theand marital status, at the end of the
questionnaire.questionnaire.
 Double-barreled questions, which ask twoDouble-barreled questions, which ask two
questions in one, should never be used in a survey.questions in one, should never be used in a survey.
 Researchers should avoid using emotionally loadedResearchers should avoid using emotionally loaded
or biased words and phrases.or biased words and phrases.
17

Advantages of QuestionnairesAdvantages of Questionnaires
 Large amounts of information can be collected from aLarge amounts of information can be collected from a
large number of people in a short period of time and in alarge number of people in a short period of time and in a
relatively cost effective way.relatively cost effective way.
 Can be carried out by the researcher or by any numberCan be carried out by the researcher or by any number
of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability.of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability.
 The results of the questionnaires can usually be quicklyThe results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly
and easily quantified by either a researcher or throughand easily quantified by either a researcher or through
the use of a software package.the use of a software package.
 Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively thanCan be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than
other forms of research.other forms of research.
 When data has been quantified, it can be used toWhen data has been quantified, it can be used to
compare and contrast other research and may be used tocompare and contrast other research and may be used to
measure change.measure change.
 Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used toPositivists believe that quantitative data can be used to
create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses.create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses. 18

Disadvantages of QuestionnairesDisadvantages of Questionnaires
 To be inadequate to understand some forms of informationTo be inadequate to understand some forms of information
- i.e. changes of emotions, behavior, feelings etc.- i.e. changes of emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
 Phenomenologists state that quantitative research isPhenomenologists state that quantitative research is
simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it issimply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is
asking only a limited amount of information withoutasking only a limited amount of information without
explanation.explanation.
 There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
 There is no way of telling how much thought a respondentThere is no way of telling how much thought a respondent
has put in.has put in.
 The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking withinThe respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within
the full context of the situation.the full context of the situation.
 People may read differently into each question andPeople may read differently into each question and
therefore reply based on their own interpretation of thetherefore reply based on their own interpretation of the
question.question.
19

InterviewsInterviews
Interviewing involves asking questions and gettingInterviewing involves asking questions and getting
answers from participants in a study.answers from participants in a study.
Interviewing has a variety of forms including-Interviewing has a variety of forms including-
• IndividualIndividual
• Face-to-face interviewingFace-to-face interviewing
• Face-to-face group interviewing.Face-to-face group interviewing.
The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by theThe asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the
telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers).telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers).
Interviews can be –Interviews can be –
 StructuredStructured
 Semi-structureSemi-structure
 UnstructuredUnstructured
 Informal Interviewing.Informal Interviewing.
20

Types of InterviewsTypes of Interviews
 Informal, Conversational interviewInformal, Conversational interview
 General interview guide approachGeneral interview guide approach
 Standardized, open-ended interviewStandardized, open-ended interview
 Closed, fixed-response interviewClosed, fixed-response interview
 Interviewer’s judgmentsInterviewer’s judgments
 Prior InformationPrior Information
 The Contrast EffectThe Contrast Effect
 Interviewers’ PrejudicesInterviewers’ Prejudices
21

•PreparationandProcessofConductingInterviewsPreparationandProcessofConductingInterviews
Preparation need to do for an interview study and thenPreparation need to do for an interview study and then
the process of conducting the interview itself.the process of conducting the interview itself.
PreparationPreparation
The Role of the Interviewer -The Role of the Interviewer -
• Locate and enlist cooperation ofLocate and enlist cooperation of
respondentsrespondents
• Motivate respondents to do goodMotivate respondents to do good
jobjob
• Clarify any confusion/concernsClarify any confusion/concerns
• Observe quality of responsesObserve quality of responses
• Conduct a good interviewConduct a good interview 22

Training the Interviewers-Training the Interviewers-
• Describe the entire studyDescribe the entire study
• State who is sponsor of researchState who is sponsor of research
• Teach enough about surveyTeach enough about survey
researchresearch
• Explain the sampling logic andExplain the sampling logic and
processprocess
• Explain interviewer biasExplain interviewer bias
23

““Walk through” the Interview-Walk through” the Interview-
• Reading mapsReading maps
• Identifying householdsIdentifying households
• Identify respondentsIdentify respondents
• Rehearse interviewRehearse interview
• Explain supervisionExplain supervision
• Explain schedulingExplain scheduling
24

The Interviewer’s Kit -The Interviewer’s Kit -
 a “professional-looking” notebook;a “professional-looking” notebook;
 maps;maps;
 sufficient copies of the survey instrument;sufficient copies of the survey instrument;
 official identification (preferable a pictureofficial identification (preferable a picture
ID);ID);
 a cover letter from the Principala cover letter from the Principal
Investigator or Sponsor; andInvestigator or Sponsor; and
 a phone number the respondent can call toa phone number the respondent can call to
verify the interviewer’s authenticity.verify the interviewer’s authenticity.
25

ProcessProcess
 Opening RemarksOpening Remarks
 Gaining entryGaining entry
 Doorstep techniqueDoorstep technique
 IntroductionIntroduction
 Explaining the studyExplaining the study
 Asking the QuestionsAsking the Questions
 Use questionnaire carefully, but informallyUse questionnaire carefully, but informally
 Ask questions exactly as writtenAsk questions exactly as written
 Follow the order givenFollow the order given
 Ask every questionAsk every question
 Don’t finish sentencesDon’t finish sentences
 Obtaining Adequate Responses - The ProbeObtaining Adequate Responses - The Probe
 Silent probeSilent probe
 Overt encouragementOvert encouragement
 ElaborationElaboration
26

PreparationandProcessofConductingInterviewsPreparationandProcessofConductingInterviews
ProcessProcess
 Ask for clarificationAsk for clarification
 RepetitionRepetition
 Recording the ResponseRecording the Response
 Record responses immediatelyRecord responses immediately
 Include all probesInclude all probes
 Use abbreviations where possibleUse abbreviations where possible
 Concluding the Interview-Concluding the Interview-
 Thank the respondentThank the respondent
 Tell them when you expect to send resultsTell them when you expect to send results
 Don’t be brusque or hastyDon’t be brusque or hasty
 Immediately after leaving - write down anyImmediately after leaving - write down any
notes about how the interview went.notes about how the interview went.
27

Strengths and WeaknessesStrengths and Weaknesses
 Paint a picture of what happened in a specificPaint a picture of what happened in a specific
event.event.
 Researchers can understand the process of anResearchers can understand the process of an
event instead of what just happened and how theyevent instead of what just happened and how they
reacted to it.reacted to it.
• Participants can cancel or change the meeting placeParticipants can cancel or change the meeting place
at the last minute.at the last minute.
• Coding can be extremely time consuming, alsoCoding can be extremely time consuming, also
become expensive.become expensive.
• Doesn’t lend itself very well to quantitative analysis.Doesn’t lend itself very well to quantitative analysis.
• More missing data in interview research than surveyMore missing data in interview research than survey
research, therefore it can be difficult to compareresearch, therefore it can be difficult to compare
populations.populations.
28

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
 FGD is an in-depth field method that bringsFGD is an in-depth field method that brings
together a small homogeneous group (usually 6 totogether a small homogeneous group (usually 6 to
12) to discuss topics on a study agenda.12) to discuss topics on a study agenda.
 The purpose of this discussion is to use the socialThe purpose of this discussion is to use the social
dynamics of the group, with the help of adynamics of the group, with the help of a
moderator/ facilitator, to stimulate participants tomoderator/ facilitator, to stimulate participants to
reveal underlying opinions, attitudes, and reasonsreveal underlying opinions, attitudes, and reasons
for their behavior.for their behavior.
 A well facilitated group can be helpful in findingA well facilitated group can be helpful in finding
out the “how” and “why” of human behavior.out the “how” and “why” of human behavior.
 It is a data collection method. Data is collectedIt is a data collection method. Data is collected
through a semi-structured group interview process.through a semi-structured group interview process.
It is used to collect data on a specific topic.It is used to collect data on a specific topic.
29

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
An FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction. In
combination with other methods, focus groups might be used to -
• explore new research areas;
• explore a topic that is difficult to observe;
• explore sensitive topics;
• collect a concentrated set of observations in a short
time span;
• gather preliminary data;
• aid in the development of surveys and interview
guides;
• explore the range of opinions/views on a topic of
interest;
• collect a wide variety of local terms and expressions
used to describe a disease or an act. 30

StepsinFocusGroupDiscussions(FGD)StepsinFocusGroupDiscussions(FGD) FGDFGD
STEP 1: Plan the entire FGD
 What activities need to be planned?
 Is there the need for a resource person.
 Role of resource person in training field
staff.

STEP 2: Decide what types of groups are
needed
 Method of sampling (selection criteria)
 Composition of groups
 Number of groups
 Group size
 Contacting and informing participants.
31

STEP 3:STEP 3: Select moderator and field teamSelect moderator and field team
 Field staff requirementsField staff requirements
 ModeratorModerator
 Observer/recorderObserver/recorder
 Other staff.Other staff.

STEP 4:STEP 4: Develop moderator’s guide andDevelop moderator’s guide and
format for recording responsesformat for recording responses
 Structure and sequence of topicsStructure and sequence of topics
 Wording of guideWording of guide
 Number of topicsNumber of topics
 Example of an FGD guide.Example of an FGD guide.
32

STEP 5:STEP 5: Train field team and conductTrain field team and conduct
pilot testpilot test
 Training hintsTraining hints
 Training packageTraining package
 Theory sessionsTheory sessions
 Practice sessionsPractice sessions
 On going revision of FGD guide.‑On going revision of FGD guide.‑

STEP 6:STEP 6: Prepare for the individual FGDsPrepare for the individual FGDs
 Site selection and location for FGDSite selection and location for FGD
 Date and timeDate and time
 Plan for supporting materials or FGDPlan for supporting materials or FGD
checklist.checklist.
33

STEP 7:STEP 7: Conduct the FGDConduct the FGD
 Conducting the DiscussionConducting the Discussion
 IntroductionIntroduction
 Warm-upWarm-up
 DiscussionDiscussion
 Wrap-up summaryWrap-up summary
 DebriefingDebriefing
 Collecting and managing information in FGD.Collecting and managing information in FGD.

STEP 8:STEP 8: Analyze and interpret FGD resultsAnalyze and interpret FGD results
 How much analysis is required?How much analysis is required?
Debriefing; Notes; Transcripts; and Log bookDebriefing; Notes; Transcripts; and Log book
 Writing the reportWriting the report
 Interpretation of findingsInterpretation of findings
 Example of Format of FGD Report.Example of Format of FGD Report.
34

HowtoConductFGD?HowtoConductFGD? FGDFGD
Selection of topic:Selection of topic: Define and clarify theDefine and clarify the
concepts to be discussed.concepts to be discussed.
Selecting the study participants:Selecting the study participants: DesigningDesigning
a focus group study is to decide on thea focus group study is to decide on the
characteristics of the individuals who arecharacteristics of the individuals who are
to be targeted for sessions.to be targeted for sessions.
Physical arrangements:Physical arrangements: Arrange the chairsArrange the chairs
in a circle. Make sure the area will bein a circle. Make sure the area will be
quite, adequately lighted, etc., and thatquite, adequately lighted, etc., and that
there will be no disturbances.there will be no disturbances.
35

HowtoConductFGD?HowtoConductFGD? FGDFGD
Conducting the Session
 One of the members of the research team
should act as a “facilitator” or “moderator” for
the focus group. One should serve as
“recorder”.
 Functions of the Facilitator -
 Introduce the session
 Encourage discussion
 Encourage involvement
 Avoid being placed in the role of expert
 Control the timing of the meeting but unobtrusively
 Take time at the end of the meeting to
summarize, check for agreement and thank the
participants
36

Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they -Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they -
 are useful when exploring cultural valuesare useful when exploring cultural values
and health beliefs;and health beliefs;
 can be used to examine how and whycan be used to examine how and why
people think in a particular way andpeople think in a particular way and
how is influences their beliefs andhow is influences their beliefs and
values;values;
 can be used to explore complex issues;can be used to explore complex issues;
 can be used to develop hypothesis forcan be used to develop hypothesis for
further research;further research;
 do not require participants to bedo not require participants to be
literate.literate.
Advantages of FGDAdvantages of FGD
37

Disadvantages of focus groups include –Disadvantages of focus groups include –
 lack of privacy/anonymity;lack of privacy/anonymity;
 having to carefully balance the group to ensurehaving to carefully balance the group to ensure
they are culturally and gender appropriate;they are culturally and gender appropriate;
 potential for group to be dominated by one orpotential for group to be dominated by one or
two people;two people;
 group leader needs to be skilled at conductinggroup leader needs to be skilled at conducting
focus groups, dealing with conflict, drawing outfocus groups, dealing with conflict, drawing out
passive participants and creating a relaxed,passive participants and creating a relaxed,
welcoming environment;welcoming environment;
 are time consuming to conduct and can beare time consuming to conduct and can be
difficult and time consuming to analyze.difficult and time consuming to analyze.
Disadvantages of FGDDisadvantages of FGD
38

ObservationObservation
Observation is a systematic data collection approach.Observation is a systematic data collection approach.
Researchers use all of their senses to examine people inResearchers use all of their senses to examine people in
natural settings or naturally occurring situations.natural settings or naturally occurring situations.
Observation of a field setting involves -Observation of a field setting involves -
• prolonged engagement in a setting or socialprolonged engagement in a setting or social
situation;situation;
• clearly expressed, self-conscious notations ofclearly expressed, self-conscious notations of
how observing is done;how observing is done;
• methodical and tactical improvisation in order tomethodical and tactical improvisation in order to
develop a full understanding of the setting ofdevelop a full understanding of the setting of
interest;interest;
• imparting attention in ways that is in someimparting attention in ways that is in some
sensesense
‘‘standardized’;standardized’;
• recording one’s observations.recording one’s observations. 39

When might observation be used?When might observation be used?
 When the nature of the research question to beWhen the nature of the research question to be
answered is focused on answering a how- or what-answered is focused on answering a how- or what-
type question.type question.
 When the topic is relatively unexplored and little isWhen the topic is relatively unexplored and little is
known to explain the behavior of people in aknown to explain the behavior of people in a
particular setting.particular setting.
 When it is important to study a phenomenon in itsWhen it is important to study a phenomenon in its
natural setting.natural setting.
 When self-report data (asking people what they do)When self-report data (asking people what they do)
is likely to be different from actual behavior (whatis likely to be different from actual behavior (what
people actually do).people actually do).
 When implementing an intervention in a naturalWhen implementing an intervention in a natural
setting.setting.
40

Classification of Observational MethodClassification of Observational Method
 Casual and Scientific ObservationCasual and Scientific Observation
 Natural ObservationNatural Observation
 Subjective and Objective ObservationSubjective and Objective Observation
 Direct and Indirect ObservationDirect and Indirect Observation
 Participant and Non Participant Observation -Participant and Non Participant Observation -
• UndisguisedUndisguised
• DisguisedDisguised
 Structured and Unstructured ObservationStructured and Unstructured Observation
• Positivist perspective (in structured observation)Positivist perspective (in structured observation)
• Interpretive or Critical perspective (in unstructuredInterpretive or Critical perspective (in unstructured
observation)observation)
 Controlled and Un-controlled ObservationControlled and Un-controlled Observation
 Covert and Overt Observation.Covert and Overt Observation.
41

Recording Behavior in Observational MethodRecording Behavior in Observational Method
 Fieldnotes:Fieldnotes: Using a template to guide a researchers’Using a template to guide a researchers’
observations. Coding sheets can be useful when data isobservations. Coding sheets can be useful when data is
collected by inexperienced observers. Templates cancollected by inexperienced observers. Templates can
deflect attention from unnamed categories, unimagineddeflect attention from unnamed categories, unimagined
and unanticipated activities.and unanticipated activities.
 Qualitative Records of Behavior:Qualitative Records of Behavior: Researcher wouldResearcher would
not approach the observation with pre-determinednot approach the observation with pre-determined
categories or questions in mind. Because of thiscategories or questions in mind. Because of this
openness, observation in qualitative research is oftenopenness, observation in qualitative research is often
referred to as unstructured.referred to as unstructured.
 Quantitative Measures of Behavior:Quantitative Measures of Behavior: Often obtainOften obtain
quantitative measures such as frequency or duration ofquantitative measures such as frequency or duration of
occurrence when they seek to describe specificoccurrence when they seek to describe specific
behaviors or events.behaviors or events.
42

Analysis of Observational DataAnalysis of Observational Data
Data Reduction:Data Reduction: Researchers quantify the data inResearchers quantify the data in
narrative records by coding behaviors according tonarrative records by coding behaviors according to
specified criteria. Data are summarized usingspecified criteria. Data are summarized using
descriptive measures such as frequency counts, means,descriptive measures such as frequency counts, means,
and standard deviations.and standard deviations.

Influence of the Observer:Influence of the Observer: If individuals change theirIf individuals change their
behavior when they know they are being observedbehavior when they know they are being observed
(reactivity), their behavior may no longer be(reactivity), their behavior may no longer be
representative of their normal behavior. Methods torepresentative of their normal behavior. Methods to
control reactivity include unobtrusive (non-reactive)control reactivity include unobtrusive (non-reactive)
measurement, adaptation (habituation, desensitization),measurement, adaptation (habituation, desensitization),
and indirect observations of behavior. Researchers mustand indirect observations of behavior. Researchers must
consider ethical issues when attempting to controlconsider ethical issues when attempting to control
reactivity.reactivity.

43

Analysis of Observational DataAnalysis of Observational Data
Observer Reliability:Observer Reliability: Inter-observerInter-observer
reliability is increased by providing clearreliability is increased by providing clear
definitions about behaviors and events to bedefinitions about behaviors and events to be
recorded.recorded.

Observer Bias:Observer Bias: Expectancy effects can occurExpectancy effects can occur
when observers are aware of hypotheses forwhen observers are aware of hypotheses for
the outcome of the study or the outcome ofthe outcome of the study or the outcome of
previous studies. It can be reduced byprevious studies. It can be reduced by
keeping observers unaware (blind) of thekeeping observers unaware (blind) of the
goals and hypotheses of the study.goals and hypotheses of the study.
44

Advantages and DisadvantagesAdvantages and Disadvantages
 It is relatively free of observer bias. It canIt is relatively free of observer bias. It can
establish frequencies, and is strong on objectiveestablish frequencies, and is strong on objective
measures.measures.
 Reliability can be strong.Reliability can be strong.
 It is precise.It is precise.
 It provides a structure for the research.It provides a structure for the research.
 Qualitative material might be misrepresented throughQualitative material might be misrepresented through
measurement techniques.measurement techniques.
 It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context inIt usually ignores the temporal and spatial context in
which the data is collected.which the data is collected.
 It is not good for generating fresh insights.It is not good for generating fresh insights.
 The pre-specification of categories predeterminesThe pre-specification of categories predetermines
what is to be discovered and allows only partialwhat is to be discovered and allows only partial
description.description.
 It ignores process, flux, development, and change.It ignores process, flux, development, and change.
45

SurveySurvey
 Survey research is used to assess thoughts, opinions, andSurvey research is used to assess thoughts, opinions, and
feelings.feelings.
 It can be specific and limited, or it can have more global,It can be specific and limited, or it can have more global,
widespread goals.widespread goals.
 Usually it is use to analyze behavior, in evaluating politicalUsually it is use to analyze behavior, in evaluating political
candidates, public health officials, professionalcandidates, public health officials, professional
organizations, and advertising and marketing directors.organizations, and advertising and marketing directors.
 A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions thatA survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that
is given to a sample.is given to a sample.
 A good sample selection is key as it allows one toA good sample selection is key as it allows one to
generalize the findings from the sample to the population.generalize the findings from the sample to the population.
Surveys provide a means of measuring a populationSurveys provide a means of measuring a population’’ss
characteristics, self-reported and observedcharacteristics, self-reported and observed
behavior, awareness of programs, attitudes orbehavior, awareness of programs, attitudes or
opinions, and needs.opinions, and needs.
46

SurveySurvey
When to Use a SurveyWhen to Use a Survey
When determining the need for a survey, departments/agencies shouldWhen determining the need for a survey, departments/agencies should
first check that the required information is not already available.first check that the required information is not already available.
 PracticalityPracticality
 ResourcesResources
 TimingTiming
 Survey requirementsSurvey requirements
 AccuracyAccuracy
 FrequencyFrequency
 Legislative powersLegislative powers
 Ethical considerationEthical consideration
47

SurveySurvey
Survey ProcessSurvey Process
Planning and DesigningPlanning and Designing
1.1. Define the purpose, objectives and the outputDefine the purpose, objectives and the output
required.required.
2.2. Design collection methodology and sample selectionDesign collection methodology and sample selection
method.method.
3.3. Develop survey procedures.Develop survey procedures.

Testing and ModifyingTesting and Modifying
44.. Pilot test all aspects of the survey if possible.Pilot test all aspects of the survey if possible.
5.5. Analyze test results (completed questionnaires,Analyze test results (completed questionnaires,
response/consent rate etc).response/consent rate etc).
6.6. Modify procedures, questionnaires andModify procedures, questionnaires and
documentation according to test evaluation.documentation according to test evaluation.
7.7. Repeat steps 1–6 if necessary.Repeat steps 1–6 if necessary.
48

SurveySurvey
Survey Process
Conducting the Survey
8. Finalize procedures, questionnaires and documentation.
9. Select sample.
10. Train interviewers (if interviewer-based).
11. Conduct the survey including follow-up of refusals and
non-contacts, supervision and checks of interviewers’
work.

Processing and Analyzing
12. Prepare data entry, estimation and tabulation systems.
13. Code, enter and edit data.
14. Process data - calculate population estimates and
standard errors, prepare tables.
15. Prepare report of survey results.
16. Prepare technical report. Evaluate and document all
aspects of the survey for use when designing future
surveys. 49

SurveySurvey
Data Collection Method in SurveyData Collection Method in Survey
 Self-completion SurveysSelf-completion Surveys via mail, email, the internetvia mail, email, the internet
or SMS are generally the least expensive,or SMS are generally the least expensive,
particularlyparticularly
for a widespread sample.for a widespread sample.
 Interviewer-based SurveysInterviewer-based Surveys such as face-to-face orsuch as face-to-face or
telephone surveys.telephone surveys.
 Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) is ais a
particular type of telephone survey technique thatparticular type of telephone survey technique that
helps to resolve some of the limitations of generalhelps to resolve some of the limitations of general
telephone-based surveying.telephone-based surveying.
 Combinations of Collection MethodsCombinations of Collection Methods such assuch as
interviewers dropping off a questionnaire to be mailedinterviewers dropping off a questionnaire to be mailed
back or returning to pick it up, a mail survey withback or returning to pick it up, a mail survey with
telephone follow-up, or an initial telephone calltelephone follow-up, or an initial telephone call
followed by a mail survey.followed by a mail survey. 50

SurveySurvey
Sources of ErrorSources of Error
Errors arising in the collection of survey data can be divided into two typesErrors arising in the collection of survey data can be divided into two types
Sampling errorSampling error:: occurs when data are collectedoccurs when data are collected
from a sample rather than the entire population.from a sample rather than the entire population.
They are affected by factors such as - sampleThey are affected by factors such as - sample
size; population variability; and sample design.size; population variability; and sample design.
Non-sampling errorNon-sampling error:: All other errors associatedAll other errors associated
with collecting survey data, such as error in -with collecting survey data, such as error in -
Planning and interpretation; Sample selection;Planning and interpretation; Sample selection;
Survey methods; Questionnaire; Interviewers;Survey methods; Questionnaire; Interviewers;
Respondents; Processing Estimation.Respondents; Processing Estimation.
Bias can also arise from inadequateBias can also arise from inadequate samplingsampling
framesframes, the lists from which respondents are, the lists from which respondents are
selected.selected.
51

SurveySurvey
Issues for Selecting Survey MethodsIssues for Selecting Survey Methods
 Population IssuesPopulation Issues
 Can the population beCan the population be
enumerated?enumerated?
 Is the population literate?Is the population literate?
 Are there language issues?Are there language issues?
 Will the population cooperate?Will the population cooperate?
 What are the geographicWhat are the geographic
restrictions?restrictions?
52

SurveySurvey
 Sampling IssuesSampling Issues
 What data is available?What data is available?
 Can respondents be found?Can respondents be found?
 Who is the respondent?Who is the respondent?
 Can all members of population beCan all members of population be
sampled?sampled?
 Are response rates likely to be aAre response rates likely to be a
problem?problem?
53

SurveySurvey
 Question IssuesQuestion Issues
 What types of questions can beWhat types of questions can be
asked?asked?
 How complex will the questions be?How complex will the questions be?
 Will screening questions beWill screening questions be
needed?needed?
 Can question sequence beCan question sequence be
controlled?controlled?
 Will lengthy questions be asked?Will lengthy questions be asked?
 Will long response scales be used?Will long response scales be used?54

SurveySurvey
 Content IssuesContent Issues
 Can the respondents be expectedCan the respondents be expected
to know about the issue?to know about the issue?
 Will respondent need to consultWill respondent need to consult
records?records?
 Bias IssuesBias Issues
 Can social desirability be avoided?Can social desirability be avoided?
 Can interviewer distortion andCan interviewer distortion and
subversion be controlled?subversion be controlled?
 Can false respondents be avoided?Can false respondents be avoided?55

SurveySurvey
 Administrative IssuesAdministrative Issues
 CostsCosts
 FacilitiesFacilities
 TimeTime
 PersonnelPersonnel
Clearly, there are lots of issues to considerClearly, there are lots of issues to consider
when you are selecting which type of survey youwhen you are selecting which type of survey you
wish to use in your study. And there is no clearwish to use in your study. And there is no clear
and easy way to make this decision in manyand easy way to make this decision in many
contexts.contexts. 56

Case-studiesCase-studies
 Case studies are in-depth investigations of aCase studies are in-depth investigations of a
single person, group, event or community.single person, group, event or community.
 The case study is not itself a research method,The case study is not itself a research method,
but researchers select methods of data collectionbut researchers select methods of data collection
and analysis that will generate material suitableand analysis that will generate material suitable
for case studies such as qualitative techniquesfor case studies such as qualitative techniques
(unstructured interviews, participant observation,(unstructured interviews, participant observation,
diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs,diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs,
notes) or official document (e.g. case notes,notes) or official document (e.g. case notes,
clinical notes, appraisal reports).clinical notes, appraisal reports).
 Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highlyUnfortunately, case studies tend to be highly
subjective and it is difficult to generalize resultssubjective and it is difficult to generalize results
to a larger population.to a larger population.
57

Characteristics of Case Study Method in Legal ResearchCharacteristics of Case Study Method in Legal Research
 Consideration towards all the aspects of a person, groupConsideration towards all the aspects of a person, group
or society so selected for study. All aspects can beor society so selected for study. All aspects can be
deeply and intensively studied.deeply and intensively studied.
 Deeply hold study into causes that forces or abetsDeeply hold study into causes that forces or abets
criminal to commit such crimes.criminal to commit such crimes.

 Can endeavor to know the relationship of causal factorsCan endeavor to know the relationship of causal factors
interlinked.interlinked.

 All the related aspects of the unit, which is in subject toAll the related aspects of the unit, which is in subject to
study, can be directly or indirectly studied.study, can be directly or indirectly studied.

 Helps to find out the useful data and enables toHelps to find out the useful data and enables to
generalize the knowledge also.generalize the knowledge also.
 Main characteristics of the case study method includesMain characteristics of the case study method includes
continuing, completeness, validity, and data as it dealscontinuing, completeness, validity, and data as it deals
with the life of social unit or units or society as whole.with the life of social unit or units or society as whole.
58

Application of Case Study ModelApplication of Case Study Model
At least four applications for a case study model –toAt least four applications for a case study model –to
• explain complex causal links in real-lifeexplain complex causal links in real-life
interventions;interventions;
• describe the real-life context in whichdescribe the real-life context in which
the intervention has occurred;the intervention has occurred;
• describe the intervention itself; anddescribe the intervention itself; and
• explore those situations in which theexplore those situations in which the
intervention being evaluated has nointervention being evaluated has no
clear set of outcomes.clear set of outcomes.
59

Sources of Information Used in a Case StudySources of Information Used in a Case Study
 Direct ObservationDirect Observation:: This strategy involves observing theThis strategy involves observing the
subject, often in a natural setting.subject, often in a natural setting.

 InterviewsInterviews:: An interview can involve structured survey-An interview can involve structured survey-
type questions, or more open-ended questions.type questions, or more open-ended questions.

 DocumentsDocuments:: Letters, newspaper articles, administrativeLetters, newspaper articles, administrative
records, etc.records, etc.

 Archival RecordsArchival Records:: Census records, survey records, nameCensus records, survey records, name
lists, etc.lists, etc.

 Physical ArtifactsPhysical Artifacts:: Tools, objects, instruments and otherTools, objects, instruments and other
artifacts often observed during a direct observation of theartifacts often observed during a direct observation of the
subject.subject.

 Participant ObservationParticipant Observation:: Involves the researcher actuallyInvolves the researcher actually
serving as a participant in events and observing the actionsserving as a participant in events and observing the actions
and outcomes.and outcomes.
60

Category of Case StudyCategory of Case Study
ProspectiveProspective:: An individual or group of people isAn individual or group of people is
observed in order to determine outcomes.observed in order to determine outcomes.
RetrospectiveRetrospective:: Looking at historical information.Looking at historical information.
ExplanatoryExplanatory:: Examine the data closely both atExamine the data closely both at
a surface and deep level in order to explain thea surface and deep level in order to explain the
phenomena in the data. On the basis of thephenomena in the data. On the basis of the
data, the researcher may then form a theorydata, the researcher may then form a theory
and set to test this theory.and set to test this theory.
ExploratoryExploratory:: Allows researchers to gather moreAllows researchers to gather more
information before developing their researchinformation before developing their research
questions and hypotheses.questions and hypotheses.
61

Category of Case StudyCategory of Case Study
DescriptiveDescriptive:: Describe the natural phenomenaDescribe the natural phenomena
which occur within the data in question. Thewhich occur within the data in question. The
goal set by the researcher is to describe thegoal set by the researcher is to describe the
data as they occur.data as they occur.
IntrinsicIntrinsic:: Researcher has a personal interestResearcher has a personal interest
in the case.in the case.
CollectiveCollective:: Involves studying a group of cases.Involves studying a group of cases.
Instrumental:Instrumental: Occurs when the individual orOccurs when the individual or
group allows researchers to understand moregroup allows researchers to understand more
than what is initially obvious to observers.than what is initially obvious to observers.
62

Procedure of Case Study MethodProcedure of Case Study Method
 Design the case study protocolDesign the case study protocol
 Determine the required skillsDetermine the required skills
 Develop and review the protocolDevelop and review the protocol

 Conduct the case studyConduct the case study
 Prepare for data collectionPrepare for data collection
 Distribute questionnaireDistribute questionnaire
 Conduct interviewConduct interview

 Analyze case study evidenceAnalyze case study evidence
 Analytic strategyAnalytic strategy

 Develop conclusions, recommendations, andDevelop conclusions, recommendations, and
implications based on the evidence.implications based on the evidence.

Each section begins with the procedures recommended in the literature,Each section begins with the procedures recommended in the literature,
followed by the application of the recommended procedure in the study.followed by the application of the recommended procedure in the study.
63

Merits of Case Study MethodMerits of Case Study Method
 Researcher can get actual and exemplary records ofResearcher can get actual and exemplary records of
experience.experience.
 Very useful in sampling as it efficiently and orderlyVery useful in sampling as it efficiently and orderly
classifies.classifies.
 Researcher can undertake one or more researchResearcher can undertake one or more research
method(s) under the existing circumstances.method(s) under the existing circumstances.
 Researcher find out new helpful things as realResearcher find out new helpful things as real
experience.experience.
 Study of all aspects of a social unit, terms of past,Study of all aspects of a social unit, terms of past,
present and future time, it gives the maturedpresent and future time, it gives the matured
knowledge that could also be useful to personal andknowledge that could also be useful to personal and
public life.public life.
 Case data are also very useful for diagnosis andCase data are also very useful for diagnosis and
thereby of practical case issues. It can be taken asthereby of practical case issues. It can be taken as
an example to be followed in future.an example to be followed in future.
64

Demerits of Case Study MethodDemerits of Case Study Method
 It is a very vague process. No mechanism to controlIt is a very vague process. No mechanism to control
researcher; Generalization is almost impossible.researcher; Generalization is almost impossible.
 It always depends on the personal feeling and thought.It always depends on the personal feeling and thought.
 Researcher always finds difficulties in deciding whenResearcher always finds difficulties in deciding when
should stop to collect data for study.should stop to collect data for study.
 It is always based on several assumptions.It is always based on several assumptions.
 This method is based on comparison with the post life.This method is based on comparison with the post life.
It is difficult to compare from one another.It is difficult to compare from one another.
 It always collects post information and data. There isIt always collects post information and data. There is
no system of checking. Difficult to replicate.no system of checking. Difficult to replicate.
 This method is time consuming, expensive and complex.This method is time consuming, expensive and complex.
65

DiariesDiaries
 It is a self-administered questionnaire often used toIt is a self-administered questionnaire often used to
record frequent or contemporaneous events or experiences.record frequent or contemporaneous events or experiences.
 In diary surveys, respondents are given the self-In diary surveys, respondents are given the self-
administered form and asked to fill in the requiredadministered form and asked to fill in the required
information when events occur (event-based diaries) or atinformation when events occur (event-based diaries) or at
specified times or time intervals (time-based diaries).specified times or time intervals (time-based diaries).
 Data from diary studies can be used to make cross-Data from diary studies can be used to make cross-
sectional comparisons across people, track an individual oversectional comparisons across people, track an individual over
time, or study processes within individuals or families.time, or study processes within individuals or families.
 Advantages are that they allow events to be recorded inAdvantages are that they allow events to be recorded in
their natural setting and minimize the delay between thetheir natural setting and minimize the delay between the
event and the time it is recorded.event and the time it is recorded.
 Diaries are used in a variety of domains. These includeDiaries are used in a variety of domains. These include
studies of expenditure, nutrition, time use, travel, mediastudies of expenditure, nutrition, time use, travel, media
exposure, health, and mental health.exposure, health, and mental health.
66

DiariesDiaries
There are two types of diary studies –There are two types of diary studies –
Elicitation studiesElicitation studies: participants capture: participants capture
media that are then used as promptsmedia that are then used as prompts
for discussion in interviews. Thefor discussion in interviews. The
method is a way to trigger themethod is a way to trigger the
participant’s memory.participant’s memory.
Feedback studiesFeedback studies: participants answer: participants answer
predefined questions about events.predefined questions about events.
This is a way of getting immediateThis is a way of getting immediate
answers from the participants.answers from the participants.
67

DiariesDiaries
Using Diaries in ResearchUsing Diaries in Research
 Biographers, historians and literary scholars have longBiographers, historians and literary scholars have long
considered diary documents for telling history.considered diary documents for telling history.
 Diaries can help to overcome the problems associatedDiaries can help to overcome the problems associated
with collecting sensitive information by personalwith collecting sensitive information by personal
interview. It can be used to supplement interview datainterview. It can be used to supplement interview data
to provide a rich source of information on respondents’to provide a rich source of information on respondents’
behavior and experiences on a daily basis.behavior and experiences on a daily basis.
 Diaries are often used are consumer expenditure andDiaries are often used are consumer expenditure and
transport planning research.transport planning research.
 Using diary methods are social networks, health, illnessUsing diary methods are social networks, health, illness
and associated behavior, diet and nutrition, social workand associated behavior, diet and nutrition, social work
and other areas of social policy, clinical psychology andand other areas of social policy, clinical psychology and
family therapy, crime behavior, alcohol consumptionfamily therapy, crime behavior, alcohol consumption
and drug usage, and sexual behavior.and drug usage, and sexual behavior.
68

DiariesDiaries
Diary Design and Format
Diaries may be open format, allowing respondents to record activities
and events in their own words, or they can be highly structured
where all activities are pre-categorized. Free format allows for
greater opportunity to recode and analyze the data.
Guidelines for designing a diary are -
 An A4 booklet of about 5 to 20 pages is desirable,
depending on the nature of the diary.
 The inside cover page should contain a clear set of
instructions on how to complete the diary.
 Depending on how long a period the diary will cover, each
page denoting either a week, a day of the week or a 24
hour period or less. Pages should be clearly ruled up as a
calendar with prominent headings and enough space to enter
all the desired information (such as what the respondent
was doing, at what time, where, who with and how they felt
at the time, and so on).
69

DiariesDiaries
Diary Design and Format
 Checklists of the items, events or behavior to help
jog the diary keeper’s memory should be printed
somewhere fairly prominent. Very long lists should
be avoided since they may be off-putting and
confusing to respondents.

 There should be an explanation of what is meant
by the unit of observation, such as a “session”, an
“event” or a “fixed time block”.

 Appropriate terminology or lists of activities should
be designed to meet the needs of the sample
under study, and if necessary, different versions
of the diary should be used for different groups.

70

 Data Quality and Response RatesData Quality and Response Rates
• Diary keeping periodDiary keeping period
• Reporting errorsReporting errors
• LiteracyLiteracy
• ParticipationParticipation
 Coding, Editing and ProcessingCoding, Editing and Processing
 Relative Cost of Diary SurveysRelative Cost of Diary Surveys
 Computer Software for ProcessingComputer Software for Processing
and Analysisand Analysis
 Archiving Diary Data.Archiving Diary Data.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
DiaryDesignandFormat DiariesDiaries
71

DiariesDiaries
Advantages and Criticism of Diary StudiesAdvantages and Criticism of Diary Studies
Advantages of diary studies are -Advantages of diary studies are -
 reporting events and experiences in context;reporting events and experiences in context;
 determining the antecedents, correlatesdetermining the antecedents, correlates
and consequences of daily experiences.and consequences of daily experiences.
Criticism of diary studies are –Criticism of diary studies are –
 diary studies might generate inaccuratediary studies might generate inaccurate
recall, especially if write about later.recall, especially if write about later.
 There is low control, low participation andThere is low control, low participation and
there is a risk of disturbing the action.there is a risk of disturbing the action.
72

Methods of Secondary Data CollectionMethods of Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data is the data that is collected fromSecondary data is the data that is collected from
the primary sources. Collecting secondary data oftenthe primary sources. Collecting secondary data often
takes considerably less time than collecting primarytakes considerably less time than collecting primary
data.data.
Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands –Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands –
QuantitativeQuantitative: Census, housing, social security: Census, housing, social security
as well as electoral statistics and otheras well as electoral statistics and other
related databases.related databases.
QualitativeQualitative: Semi-structured and structured: Semi-structured and structured
interviews, focus groups transcripts, fieldinterviews, focus groups transcripts, field
notes, observation records and othernotes, observation records and other
personal, research-related documents.personal, research-related documents.
73

 Published Printed SourcesPublished Printed Sources
 BooksBooks
 WeblogsWeblogs
 Magazines/NewspapersMagazines/Newspapers
 Published Electronic SourcesPublished Electronic Sources
 e-journalse-journals
 General WebsitesGeneral Websites
 Journals/periodicalsJournals/periodicalsReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
MethodsofSecondaryDataCollectionMethodsofSecondaryDataCollection
74

 Unpublished Personal Records-Unpublished Personal Records-
• DiariesDiaries
• LettersLetters
 Government RecordsGovernment Records
 Census Data/population statistics:Census Data/population statistics:
Health recordsHealth records;; EducationalEducational
institutes’ records etc.institutes’ records etc.
 Public Sector Records:Public Sector Records: NGOs’NGOs’
survey datasurvey data;; Other privateOther private
companies records.companies records.Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
MethodsofSecondaryDataCollectionMethodsofSecondaryDataCollection
75

Methods of Legal ResearchMethods of Legal Research
In pursuing research for disclosingIn pursuing research for disclosing
facts or proving a hypothesis true orfacts or proving a hypothesis true or
false, various kinds of methods canfalse, various kinds of methods can
be applied for the successfulbe applied for the successful
research.research.
 ObservationObservation
 QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
 SamplingSampling
 InterviewsInterviews
 Case Study.Case Study.
76

QuestionsQuestions
AnswersAnswersReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
77

Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic
Guidelines for Research: An Introductory
Approach for All Disciplines. Book Zone
Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,
Chittagong-4203, Bangladesh.
78

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