This document discusses various research methods, including quantitative, qualitative, and participatory approaches. It provides details on quantitative methods like surveys, experiments, and case studies which use numerical data to identify statistical relationships between variables. Qualitative methods are described as using non-numerical data to understand behaviors and search for themes. Participatory research fully involves subjects in the research process. Specific quantitative methods like surveys, interviews, and focus groups are also summarized.

1. RESEARCHRESEARCH
METHODSMETHODS
MD AZIZURMD AZIZUR
RAHMANRAHMAN
azizurmlis@gmail.comazizurmlis@gmail.com

2. BASIC RESEARCHBASIC RESEARCH
METHODSMETHODS
 Quantitative researchQuantitative research
 Qualitative researchQualitative research
 Participatory researchParticipatory research
– Quantitative research - refers to the systematicQuantitative research - refers to the systematic
empirical investigation of quantitative properties andempirical investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships.phenomena and their relationships.
– Follows a deductive research process and involves theFollows a deductive research process and involves the
collection and analysis of quantitative data to identifycollection and analysis of quantitative data to identify
statistical relations of variables.statistical relations of variables.

3. BASIC RESEARCHBASIC RESEARCH
METHODSMETHODS
 Qualitative researchQualitative research
 Participatory researchParticipatory research
– Qualitative research - follows an inductive research processQualitative research - follows an inductive research process
and involves the collection and analysis of qualitative data toand involves the collection and analysis of qualitative data to
search for patterns, themes, and holistic features.search for patterns, themes, and holistic features.
– It is concerned with understanding the processes, whichIt is concerned with understanding the processes, which
underlie various behavioural patterns. "Qualitative" isunderlie various behavioural patterns. "Qualitative" is
primarily concerned with "Why"primarily concerned with "Why"
– Participatory research - the subjects, usually oppressed orParticipatory research - the subjects, usually oppressed or
exploited groups, are fully involved in the research, from theexploited groups, are fully involved in the research, from the
designing of topics to the analysis of data. ...designing of topics to the analysis of data. ...
– It makes aIt makes a participatory approachparticipatory approach to learning as a centralto learning as a central
part of a research process.part of a research process.

4. Research MethodsResearch Methods
Another classification is:Another classification is:
 Qualitative researchQualitative research
– Observation MethodObservation Method
» Observational researchObservational research involves watching or observinginvolves watching or observing
various behaviours and patterns.various behaviours and patterns.
 Quantitative researchQuantitative research
– Quantitative research involves information or data inQuantitative research involves information or data in
the form of numbers.the form of numbers.
– This allows us to measureThis allows us to measure or to quantifyor to quantify a wholea whole
range of things.range of things.
– A common way of conducting quantitative research isA common way of conducting quantitative research is
using ausing a surveysurvey..

5. Types of Quantitative researchTypes of Quantitative research
methodsmethods
 Survey methodSurvey method
 Interview methodInterview method
 Focus groupsFocus groups
 Experimental methodExperimental method
 Case studiesCase studies
– Each of these methodologies helps to find outEach of these methodologies helps to find out
different things in different ways.different things in different ways.
– These can be used on their own, or in a variety ofThese can be used on their own, or in a variety of
combinations.combinations.

6. SURVEYSSURVEYS
 Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or writtenSurveys ask respondents for information using verbal or written
questioningquestioning
 Surveys can be conducted in a number of ways.Surveys can be conducted in a number of ways.
Gathering Information via SurveysGathering Information via Surveys
 QuickQuick
 InexpensiveInexpensive
 EfficientEfficient
 AccurateAccurate
 FlexibleFlexible
ProblemsProblems
 Poor DesignPoor Design
 Improper ExecutionImproper Execution

7. BASIC SURVEY DESIGNSBASIC SURVEY DESIGNS
1.1. Cross-Sectional Surveys:Cross-Sectional Surveys:
 A study in which various segments of a population are sampledA study in which various segments of a population are sampled
 Data are collected at one point in time from a sample selected toData are collected at one point in time from a sample selected to
represent a larger population.represent a larger population.
2. Longitudinal Surveys2. Longitudinal Surveys
 A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing analysis ofA survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing analysis of
changes over time.changes over time.
 Tracking study - compare trends and identify changesTracking study - compare trends and identify changes
 consumer satisfactionconsumer satisfaction
Longitudinal Surveys = Trend, Cohort, and PanelLongitudinal Surveys = Trend, Cohort, and Panel
 Trend: Surveys of sample population at different points in timeTrend: Surveys of sample population at different points in time
 Cohort: Study of same population each time data are collected, althoughCohort: Study of same population each time data are collected, although
samples studied may be different.samples studied may be different.
 Panel: Collection of data at various time points with the same sample ofPanel: Collection of data at various time points with the same sample of
respondents.respondents.

8. Advantages of SurveysAdvantages of Surveys
 Good for comparative analysis.Good for comparative analysis.
 Can get lots of data in a relatively short space ofCan get lots of data in a relatively short space of
time.time.
 Can be cost-effective (if you use the Internet).Can be cost-effective (if you use the Internet).
 Can take less time for respondents to completeCan take less time for respondents to complete
(compared to an interview or focus group).(compared to an interview or focus group).
Disadvantages of SurveysDisadvantages of Surveys
 Responses may not be specific.Responses may not be specific.
 Questions may be misinterpreted.Questions may be misinterpreted.
 May not get as many responses as you expected.May not get as many responses as you expected.
 Don’t get full story.Don’t get full story.

9. MODES OF SURVEYMODES OF SURVEY
ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION
 Personal (Face-to-Face)Personal (Face-to-Face)
 TelephoneTelephone
 Mail (P+E)Mail (P+E)
 WebWeb
 Combination of MethodsCombination of Methods
Criteria to Decide the Mode of Data CollectionCriteria to Decide the Mode of Data Collection
– Population + Characteristics of the Sample + Types of Questions +Population + Characteristics of the Sample + Types of Questions +
Question Topic + Response Rate + Cost + TimeQuestion Topic + Response Rate + Cost + Time

10. Personal InterviewsPersonal Interviews
Door-to-Door Personal InterviewDoor-to-Door Personal Interview
 Speed of data collection - Moderate to fastSpeed of data collection - Moderate to fast
 Geographical flexibility - Limited to moderateGeographical flexibility - Limited to moderate
 Respondent cooperationRespondent cooperation - Excellent- Excellent
 Versatility of questioningVersatility of questioning - Quite versatile- Quite versatile

11. Door-to-Door PersonalDoor-to-Door Personal
InterviewInterview
 Questionnaire lengthQuestionnaire length
– LongLong
 Item nonresponseItem nonresponse
– LowLow
 Possibility of respondent misunderstandingPossibility of respondent misunderstanding
– LowestLowest

12. Door-to-Door PersonalDoor-to-Door Personal
InterviewInterview
 Degree of interviewer influence of answerDegree of interviewer influence of answer
– HighHigh
 Supervision of interviewersSupervision of interviewers
– ModerateModerate
 Anonymity of respondentAnonymity of respondent
– LowLow

13. Door-to-Door PersonalDoor-to-Door Personal
InterviewInterview
 Ease of call back or follow-upEase of call back or follow-up
– DifficultDifficult
 CostCost
– HighestHighest
 Special featuresSpecial features
– Visual materials may be shown or demonstrated;Visual materials may be shown or demonstrated;
extended probing possibleextended probing possible

14. Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys
 Speed of Data CollectionSpeed of Data Collection
– Very fastVery fast
 Geographical FlexibilityGeographical Flexibility
– HighHigh
 Respondent CooperationRespondent Cooperation
– GoodGood
 Versatility of QuestioningVersatility of Questioning
– ModerateModerate

15. Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys
 Questionnaire LengthQuestionnaire Length
– ModerateModerate
 Item NonresponseItem Nonresponse
– MediumMedium
 Possibility of RespondentPossibility of Respondent MisunderstandingMisunderstanding
– AverageAverage
 Degree of Interviewer Influence of AnswerDegree of Interviewer Influence of Answer
– ModerateModerate

16. Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys
 Supervision of interviewersSupervision of interviewers
– High, especially with central location WATSHigh, especially with central location WATS
interviewinginterviewing
 Anonymity of respondentAnonymity of respondent
– ModerateModerate
 Ease of call back or follow-upEase of call back or follow-up
– EasyEasy

17. Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys
 CostCost
– Low to moderateLow to moderate
 Special featuresSpecial features
– Fieldwork and supervision of data collection areFieldwork and supervision of data collection are
simplified; quite adaptable to computersimplified; quite adaptable to computer
technologytechnology
 Central location interviewingCentral location interviewing
 Computer-assisted telephone interviewingComputer-assisted telephone interviewing
 Computerized voice-activated interviewsComputerized voice-activated interviews

18. M A IL IN -P E R S O N
D R O P -O F F
IN S E R T S F A X
P A P E R
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S
E -M A IL IN T E R N E T
W E B S IT E
K IO S K
E L E C T R O N IC
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S
S E L F -A D M IN IS T E R E D
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S
Self-AdministeredSelf-Administered
QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

19. Mail SurveysMail Surveys
 Speed of data collectionSpeed of data collection
– Researcher has no control over return ofResearcher has no control over return of
questionnaire; slowquestionnaire; slow
 Geographical flexibilityGeographical flexibility
– HighHigh
 Respondent cooperationRespondent cooperation
– Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will haveModerate--poorly designed questionnaire will have
low response ratelow response rate

20. Mail SurveysMail Surveys
 Versatility of questioningVersatility of questioning
– Highly standardized formatHighly standardized format
 Questionnaire lengthQuestionnaire length
– Varies depending on incentiveVaries depending on incentive
 Item nonresponseItem nonresponse
– HighHigh

21. WEB SURVEYSWEB SURVEYS
ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES
 Lower cost (no paper, postage, mailing, data entry costs)Lower cost (no paper, postage, mailing, data entry costs)
 Can reach international populationsCan reach international populations
 Time required for implementation reducedTime required for implementation reduced
 Complex patterns can be programmedComplex patterns can be programmed
 Sample size can be greaterSample size can be greater
DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES
 Small % of homes own a computer and e-mail in IndiaSmall % of homes own a computer and e-mail in India
 Representative samples difficult - cannot generate random samples ofRepresentative samples difficult - cannot generate random samples of
general populationgeneral population
 Differences in capabilities of people's computers and software forDifferences in capabilities of people's computers and software for
accessing Web surveysaccessing Web surveys
 Different ISPs/line speeds limits extent of graphics that can be usedDifferent ISPs/line speeds limits extent of graphics that can be used

22. What are the issues to beWhat are the issues to be
considered?considered?
 What is your research question?What is your research question?
 What is your target population?What is your target population?
 What do you know about this population?What do you know about this population?
 Do you have a sample frame? What shape is it in?Do you have a sample frame? What shape is it in?
 Do you have an existing questionnaire?Do you have an existing questionnaire?
 By when do you need your data?By when do you need your data?
 How much money do you have?How much money do you have?

23. What factors goes into theWhat factors goes into the
cost?cost?
 professional time required to write, program questionnaireprofessional time required to write, program questionnaire
 professional time to design and implement sample planprofessional time to design and implement sample plan
 questionnaire lengthquestionnaire length
 condition of the sample framecondition of the sample frame
 availability of the sample for interviewavailability of the sample for interview
 the saliency of the topic to the populationthe saliency of the topic to the population
 interviewer hiring and trainingsinterviewer hiring and trainings
 callback procedurescallback procedures
 eligibility criteria (screening is VERY expensive)eligibility criteria (screening is VERY expensive)
 geographic dispersion of the sample (geographic dispersion of the sample (phone, personalphone, personal))
 postage, mailing costspostage, mailing costs (mail)(mail)
 travel for interviewers to sampletravel for interviewers to sample
 coding, data entrycoding, data entry

24. Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
 Qualitative research helps us to give reasons whyQualitative research helps us to give reasons why
the numbers tell us what they do.the numbers tell us what they do.
 Often used together to get the ‘reasons for’ of whatOften used together to get the ‘reasons for’ of what
we are trying to find out.we are trying to find out.
Face-to-face interviews and focus groupsFace-to-face interviews and focus groups
 The most common forms of qualitative researchThe most common forms of qualitative research
methods.methods.
 Face-to-face interviews are just meeting someoneFace-to-face interviews are just meeting someone
in person and discussing various issues.in person and discussing various issues.

25. Face-to-face InterviewsFace-to-face Interviews
 Always prepare a set of questions to ask theAlways prepare a set of questions to ask the
informant;informant;
 It is a good idea to record your interviews, so thatIt is a good idea to record your interviews, so that
you can check your facts later.you can check your facts later.
 Interviews shouldn’t really take more than an hour.Interviews shouldn’t really take more than an hour.
Usually 10 questions are enough for this amountUsually 10 questions are enough for this amount
of time;of time;
 Sometimes people transcribe the interviewSometimes people transcribe the interview
recordings.recordings.

26. Advantages of face-to-face interviewsAdvantages of face-to-face interviews
 Can allow for in-depth knowledge sharing;Can allow for in-depth knowledge sharing;
 Helps to develop the bigger picture;Helps to develop the bigger picture;
 Helps with analysis of results;Helps with analysis of results;
 Good for networking (e.g. you may be referred to otherGood for networking (e.g. you may be referred to other
people to interview).people to interview).
Disadvantages of face-to-face interviewsDisadvantages of face-to-face interviews
 Can be time consuming;Can be time consuming;
 May be difficult to arrange an interview time;May be difficult to arrange an interview time;
 Can be difficult to compare and analyse information.Can be difficult to compare and analyse information.

27. Focus GroupsFocus Groups
Focus groups (e.g. TV show, small group of 3-10)Focus groups (e.g. TV show, small group of 3-10)
 Focus groups involve discussions with two or moreFocus groups involve discussions with two or more
participants.participants.
 While questions for focus groups need to be prepared toWhile questions for focus groups need to be prepared to
guide and focus the discussions,guide and focus the discussions,
 the responses are often free-rangingthe responses are often free-ranging
 focus groups and interviews will help in givingfocus groups and interviews will help in giving
explanations for quantitative data,explanations for quantitative data,
 Focus groups can sometimes take time to arrange, soFocus groups can sometimes take time to arrange, so
prepare in advance.prepare in advance.
 Think about who you want to participate in the focusThink about who you want to participate in the focus
group by referring to yourgroup by referring to your research questionresearch question..
 The focus group facilitator holds an immense amount ofThe focus group facilitator holds an immense amount of
power in the discussions.power in the discussions.

28. Advantages of Focus GroupsAdvantages of Focus Groups
 Good for community participation (grassroots input);Good for community participation (grassroots input);
 Helpful in developing ideas and sharing latent, or hidden,Helpful in developing ideas and sharing latent, or hidden,
knowledge spontaneously;knowledge spontaneously;
 Enables you to get information from a number ofEnables you to get information from a number of
individuals simultaneously.individuals simultaneously.
Disadvantages of focus groupsDisadvantages of focus groups
 Can be difficult to set up;Can be difficult to set up;
 Participants may need to be paid;Participants may need to be paid;
 Need to be sensitive to who the facilitator is;Need to be sensitive to who the facilitator is;
 May need a translator;May need a translator;
 Sometimes difficult to organize and analyse information.Sometimes difficult to organize and analyse information.

29. ReadingsReadings
1.1. Kothari,Kothari,

30. ANYANY
QUESTIONSQUESTIONS
PLEASE???PLEASE???

31. Total
error
Systematic
error (bias)
Random sampling
error
Tree Diagram of Total SurveyTree Diagram of Total Survey
ErrorError

32. Random Sampling ErrorRandom Sampling Error
 A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation inA statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation in
the elements selected for the sample.the elements selected for the sample.
 Sampling error is the deviation of theSampling error is the deviation of the selected sampleselected sample from thefrom the
true characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of thetrue characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of the
entire population.entire population.
 The most frequent cause of the said error is a biased samplingThe most frequent cause of the said error is a biased sampling
procedure.procedure.
 The researcher is able to minimize or eliminateThe researcher is able to minimize or eliminate sampling errorsampling error..
 A larger sample size will have less sampling process errorA larger sample size will have less sampling process error
compared to the study with smaller sample size.compared to the study with smaller sample size.

33. Systematic ErrorSystematic Error
 Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect ofSystematic error results from some imperfect aspect of
the research design or from a mistake in the executionthe research design or from a mistake in the execution
of the research.of the research.
 Systematic errors in experimental observations usuallySystematic errors in experimental observations usually
come from the measuring instruments.come from the measuring instruments.
 They may occur because:They may occur because:
– there is something wrong with the instrument or its datathere is something wrong with the instrument or its data
handling system, orhandling system, or
– because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.

34. Systematic
error (bias)
Administrative
error
Respondent
error
Tree Diagram of Total SurveyTree Diagram of Total Survey
ErrorError

35. Sample BiasSample Bias
 Sample bias - when the results of a sample showSample bias - when the results of a sample show
a persistent tendency to deviate in one directiona persistent tendency to deviate in one direction
from the true value of the population parameterfrom the true value of the population parameter

36. Respondent
error
Nonresponse
error
Response
bias
Tree Diagram of Total SurveyTree Diagram of Total Survey
ErrorError

37. Respondent ErrorRespondent Error
 A classification of sample bias resultingA classification of sample bias resulting
from some respondent action or inactionfrom some respondent action or inaction
»Nonresponse biasNonresponse bias
»Response biasResponse bias

38. Nonresponse ErrorNonresponse Error
 Nonrespondents - people who refuse toNonrespondents - people who refuse to
cooperatecooperate
 Not-at-homesNot-at-homes
 Self-selection biasSelf-selection bias
» Over-represents extreme positionsOver-represents extreme positions
» Under-represents indifferenceUnder-represents indifference

39. Response
bias
Unconscious
misrepresentation
Deliberate
falsification
Tree Diagram of Total SurveyTree Diagram of Total Survey
ErrorError

40. Response BiasResponse Bias
 A bias that occurs when respondentsA bias that occurs when respondents
tend to answer questions with a certaintend to answer questions with a certain
slant that consciously or unconsciouslyslant that consciously or unconsciously
misrepresents the truthmisrepresents the truth

41. Acquiescence bias
Extremity bias
Interviewer bias
Auspices bias
Social desirability bias
Tree Diagram of Total Survey ErrorTree Diagram of Total Survey Error

42. Acquiescence BiasAcquiescence Bias
 A category of response bias that resultsA category of response bias that results
because some individuals tend to agree withbecause some individuals tend to agree with
all questions or to concur with a particularall questions or to concur with a particular
position.position.

43. Extremity BiasExtremity Bias
 A category of response bias that results becauseA category of response bias that results because
response styles vary from person to person;response styles vary from person to person;
some individuals tend to use extremes whensome individuals tend to use extremes when
responding to questions.responding to questions.

44. Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias
 A response bias that occurs because theA response bias that occurs because the
presence of the interviewer influences answers.presence of the interviewer influences answers.

45. Auspices BiasAuspices Bias
 Bias in the responses of subjects caused byBias in the responses of subjects caused by
the respondents being influenced by thethe respondents being influenced by the
organization conducting the study.organization conducting the study.

46. Social Desirability BiasSocial Desirability Bias
 Bias in responses caused by respondents’Bias in responses caused by respondents’
desire, either conscious or unconscious, todesire, either conscious or unconscious, to
gain prestige or appear in a different socialgain prestige or appear in a different social
role.role.

47. Systematic
error (bias)
Administrative
error
Respondent
error
Tree Diagram of Total SurveyTree Diagram of Total Survey
ErrorError

48. Administrative ErrorAdministrative Error
 Improper administration of the research taskImproper administration of the research task
 BlundersBlunders
» ConfusionConfusion
» NeglectNeglect
» OmissionOmission

49. Data processing error
Sample selection error
Interviewer error
Interviewer cheating
Tree Diagram of Total SurveyTree Diagram of Total Survey
ErrorError

50. Administrative ErrorAdministrative Error
 Interviewer cheatingInterviewer cheating -- filling in fake answers orfilling in fake answers or
falsifying interviewersfalsifying interviewers
 Data processing errorData processing error - incorrect data entry,- incorrect data entry,
computer programming, or other proceduralcomputer programming, or other procedural
errors during the analysis stage.errors during the analysis stage.
 Sample selection error -Sample selection error -improper sample designimproper sample design
or sampling procedure execution.or sampling procedure execution.
 Interviewer error -Interviewer error - field mistakesfield mistakes