1. The abdomen contains the organs of the digestive and urinary systems. It is bounded by muscles and vertebrae and contains loops of intestine, the liver, kidneys and more.
2. The abdominal cavity is divided into regions and quadrants by planes to aid localization of structures.
3. Major organs include the stomach, small and large intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen and kidneys. The peritoneum lines the walls and covers some organs.
This document provides information about barium procedures, including barium swallow, barium meal, and barium follow through examinations. It defines barium as a radioopaque contrast agent used to provide a roadmap of GI tract pathologies in x-ray exams. Barium sulphate is commonly used because it is non-toxic, non-absorbable, and coats the mucosa, allowing double contrast studies. The document describes the techniques, positions, and views used in various barium exams to visualize the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. It also lists common indications, contraindications, and complications.
Anatomia y Posicionamiento de las extremidades superiores. Deseo aclarar que el video no me pertenece de ninguna manera. Se esta compartiendo publicamente con el fin de ayudar a los futuros tecnologos a obtener conocimiento para su revalida.
This document describes several planes and lines used to position the skull for radiographic imaging, as well as the positioning for common skull views. The three main planes are the median sagittal, anthropological, and auricular planes. Key lines include the interorbital, infraorbital, anthropological baseline, and orbitomeatal baseline. Common views described include the lateral, AP/PA, Towne's, Caldwell's, submentovertex, and Waters views. For each view, the positioning of the patient and direction of the central ray are outlined.
This document discusses various ankle x-ray views including:
- Anterior-posterior (AP) view which assesses the tibia, fibula, talus and metatarsals.
- Lateral view which assesses the tibia, fibula, talus, navicular, cuboid and calcaneum.
- Oblique views which rotate the foot internally or externally.
- Special views like the mortise view which assesses the tibial plafond and malleoli articulation with the talus, and stress views which evaluate ligament tears and joint stability. Patient positioning and technical factors are provided for each view.
This document provides information about small bowel imaging techniques. It discusses barium follow through examinations, where barium is ingested and x-rays are taken periodically to image the small bowel. It also describes dedicated small bowel follow through exams using single contrast techniques and positioning to visualize different parts of the bowel. Other small bowel imaging methods discussed include enteroclysis, peroral pneumocolon, and reflux examinations. The document provides details on the indications, contraindications, and interpretation of small bowel imaging studies.
This document provides instructions for taking plain radiographs of the abdomen in various positions and for different purposes. It describes the standard anterior-posterior (AP) view of the abdomen with the patient supine and cassette under the back. Upright and decubitus views are also outlined to demonstrate the movement of gas or fluid in the abdomen. Radiographic techniques like expiration, tube angle, and centering are specified for optimal visualization. An acute abdominal series including chest, supine abdomen, and upright views is also defined. The purpose is to image the abdomen non-invasively and detect abnormalities like stones, masses, gas, fluid, or foreign bodies.
Barium meal is a radiological study used to examine the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, and proximal jejunum. It involves oral administration of barium contrast media. There are several types of barium meal studies including single contrast, double contrast, and biphase studies. Single contrast studies visualize the gross anatomy while double contrast studies provide better mucosal detail using barium and gas contrast. Barium meal exams can detect abnormalities such as ulcers, masses, polyps, and narrowings that may indicate conditions like peptic ulcer disease, gastritis, cancer, or motility disorders.
This document provides instructions for taking x-rays of various parts of the lower limb, including the foot, ankle, calcaneus, and knee. It describes patient positioning, cassette placement, and beam direction for standard views such as dorsi-plantar, lateral, mortice, and weight-bearing views of the foot and ankle, as well as antero-posterior and lateral views of the knee. Precise positioning is emphasized to visualize anatomical structures and assess alignment.
This document provides information about barium procedures, including barium swallow, barium meal, and barium follow through examinations. It defines barium as a radioopaque contrast agent used to provide a roadmap of GI tract pathologies in x-ray exams. Barium sulphate is commonly used because it is non-toxic, non-absorbable, and coats the mucosa, allowing double contrast studies. The document describes the techniques, positions, and views used in various barium exams to visualize the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. It also lists common indications, contraindications, and complications.
Anatomia y Posicionamiento de las extremidades superiores. Deseo aclarar que el video no me pertenece de ninguna manera. Se esta compartiendo publicamente con el fin de ayudar a los futuros tecnologos a obtener conocimiento para su revalida.
This document describes several planes and lines used to position the skull for radiographic imaging, as well as the positioning for common skull views. The three main planes are the median sagittal, anthropological, and auricular planes. Key lines include the interorbital, infraorbital, anthropological baseline, and orbitomeatal baseline. Common views described include the lateral, AP/PA, Towne's, Caldwell's, submentovertex, and Waters views. For each view, the positioning of the patient and direction of the central ray are outlined.
This document discusses various ankle x-ray views including:
- Anterior-posterior (AP) view which assesses the tibia, fibula, talus and metatarsals.
- Lateral view which assesses the tibia, fibula, talus, navicular, cuboid and calcaneum.
- Oblique views which rotate the foot internally or externally.
- Special views like the mortise view which assesses the tibial plafond and malleoli articulation with the talus, and stress views which evaluate ligament tears and joint stability. Patient positioning and technical factors are provided for each view.
This document provides information about small bowel imaging techniques. It discusses barium follow through examinations, where barium is ingested and x-rays are taken periodically to image the small bowel. It also describes dedicated small bowel follow through exams using single contrast techniques and positioning to visualize different parts of the bowel. Other small bowel imaging methods discussed include enteroclysis, peroral pneumocolon, and reflux examinations. The document provides details on the indications, contraindications, and interpretation of small bowel imaging studies.
This document provides instructions for taking plain radiographs of the abdomen in various positions and for different purposes. It describes the standard anterior-posterior (AP) view of the abdomen with the patient supine and cassette under the back. Upright and decubitus views are also outlined to demonstrate the movement of gas or fluid in the abdomen. Radiographic techniques like expiration, tube angle, and centering are specified for optimal visualization. An acute abdominal series including chest, supine abdomen, and upright views is also defined. The purpose is to image the abdomen non-invasively and detect abnormalities like stones, masses, gas, fluid, or foreign bodies.
Barium meal is a radiological study used to examine the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, and proximal jejunum. It involves oral administration of barium contrast media. There are several types of barium meal studies including single contrast, double contrast, and biphase studies. Single contrast studies visualize the gross anatomy while double contrast studies provide better mucosal detail using barium and gas contrast. Barium meal exams can detect abnormalities such as ulcers, masses, polyps, and narrowings that may indicate conditions like peptic ulcer disease, gastritis, cancer, or motility disorders.
This document provides instructions for taking x-rays of various parts of the lower limb, including the foot, ankle, calcaneus, and knee. It describes patient positioning, cassette placement, and beam direction for standard views such as dorsi-plantar, lateral, mortice, and weight-bearing views of the foot and ankle, as well as antero-posterior and lateral views of the knee. Precise positioning is emphasized to visualize anatomical structures and assess alignment.
Learn Barium Meal & Follow Through for the beginners from a Radiology Resident.For some image description please go through the text book "David Sutton" because i have described these image during my presentation Verbally..There are many animations used inside this presentation so to see all the pictures which are placed layer by layer with the help of animations you simple need to download this presentation first.... Thanx.
This document provides guidance for pediatric radiography technicians. It discusses preparing children for exams, building trust, using immobilization devices, evaluating developmental abnormalities, minimizing radiation exposure, and reporting suspected child abuse. Successful exams require preparing the room in advance, explaining the process to the child and parents, and using communication skills and immobilization as needed based on the child's age and cooperation level. Common pediatric conditions seen radiographically are also outlined.
Presentation1.pptx, radiological anatomy of the abdomen and pelvis.Abdellah Nazeer
This document discusses various imaging modalities used to image the abdomen and pelvis, including ultrasound, CT, MRI, fluoroscopy, and nuclear medicine scans. It provides details on how each modality works and examples of images produced. Key anatomy seen on plain films is described. The primary modalities are said to be ultrasound, CT and plain films. Choice of modality depends on clinical presentation and physical exam findings. Understanding anatomy aids in interpreting imaging studies.
Barium meal ppt presentation is very important for radiology resident , radiologist and radiographers. this slide contents lots of barium image and technique, position, indication and modification and lots of information. this presentation help alot thanks .
Basic anatomy Views -importance and positioning Interpretation Skull radiographyairwave12
The document provides instructions for various skull and sinus x-ray views including positioning, collimation, and interpretation guidelines. Key views covered include PA, Caldwell, Chamberlain-Townes, lateral, base, Schuller's, Water's, sinus lateral, and basilar views. Proper positioning is emphasized to ensure quality images and evaluation of important anatomical structures like the sinuses, orbits, and temporomandibular joints.
This document provides guidelines for taking various radiographic views of the lumbar spine, including the patient positioning, part positioning, and technical factors for each view. It describes common views like the AP, lateral, and oblique views as well as specialized views for assessing scoliosis, spondylolisthesis, and spinal fusion sites. Proper positioning and technique are emphasized to accurately visualize lumbar spine anatomy and pathology.
- Contrast media are substances used in medical imaging to increase radiographic contrast in areas where it was previously low or absent. They improve the visibility of internal structures on scans.
- There are two main types - positive contrast agents, which increase contrast, and negative contrast agents, which decrease contrast. Common positive agents are iodine-based and barium-based. Common negative agents are air and carbon dioxide.
- Contrast media are administered in different ways depending on the area being examined, such as orally, rectally, intravenously, or intra-arterially. They allow detailed examination of organ systems like the gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, and soft tissues.
Positioning and radiographic anatomy of the skullmr_koky
This document provides information on positioning and radiographic anatomy of the skull. It discusses the anatomy of the skull and lists the 8 cranial bones. It then describes various positioning considerations for skull radiography including erect vs recumbent positioning, patient comfort, hygiene, exposure factors, SID and radiation protection. Several common skull radiographic projections are outlined including the AP, lateral, PA, submentovertex and oblique projections. For each projection, the demonstrated pathology, positioning, central ray angle and structures shown are described.
This document provides positioning guidelines for radiographic imaging of the cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, lumbo-sacral spine, and sacrum. It describes the standard views, patient preparation, positioning, tube and cassette centering, and exposure settings for each anatomical region. Proper patient positioning and radiographic technique are important to obtain diagnostic images while minimizing radiation dose.
Learn Chest X-Ray With Its Normal Positioning & Radio-AnatomyDr.Santosh Atreya
Learn Chest X-Ray With Its Normal Positioning & Radio-Anatomy..For some image description please go through the text book "David Sutton" because i have described these image during my presentation Verbally..There are many animations used inside this presentation so to see all the pictures which are placed layer by layer with the help of animations you simple need to download this presentation first.... Thanx.
Barium follow through & small bowel enema ranjuRABIN PAUDEL
The document discusses barium follow through, which examines the small bowel from the duodenum to the ileocecal region by administering barium orally. It can be done as a continuation of an upper GI series or separately. Methods include single or double contrast. Double contrast uses an effervescent agent to better distend and separate bowel loops. The procedure involves preliminary films, administering contrast, and taking films over several hours to follow the barium through the small bowel. It is used to evaluate conditions like Crohn's disease and complications include leakage from an undetected perforation.
This document provides information on small bowel enema/enteroclysis procedure. It discusses the indications for the procedure including partial small bowel obstruction and Crohn's disease. It outlines the preparation process and describes how to position the Bilbao Dotter tube through the nose into the duodenum. The document discusses performing the procedure with single or double contrast and imaging techniques. Potential findings and complications are also summarized.
This document provides information on taking radiographic views of the thoracic spine, including:
- Common clinical indications that would warrant thoracic spine x-rays such as compression fractures or scoliosis.
- Instructions for setting up three standard views - the AP, lateral, and oblique positions. For each view, it describes the clinical indications, patient positioning, part positioning, and technical factors.
- For the AP view, it instructs to position the patient supine or erect with their midline and midsagittal plane aligned and to direct the CR to T7. For the lateral view, it describes positioning the patient laterally with their spine parallel to the table and directing the CR to T
This document discusses emergency drugs used in radiology departments. It notes that medical emergencies may occur due to medications, procedures, or pre-existing conditions. A crash cart containing emergency drugs like adrenaline, atropine, buscopan, hydrocortisone, and dopamine is used to manage complications from sedation, invasive procedures, or errors. While serious emergencies are rare, the increasing complexity of procedures means they will become more frequent. It is essential that radiology departments are prepared to deal with any emergency immediately. The presentation will discuss emergency drugs and their uses.
Magnification(macro and micro radiography), distortionparthajyotidas11
This document discusses the techniques of macroradiography and microradiography. It defines macroradiography as producing a magnified image using increased object to film distance. It describes the principles of magnification using fixed focus-film distance or fixed focus-object distance. Unsharpness from movement or geometry is discussed. Applications include skull and wrist radiography. Microradiography uses ultra-fine film and high voltages for small object imaging. Mass miniature radiography was used to screen for tuberculosis using portable fluoroscopic equipment. Distortion can occur if objects are not parallel to the central x-ray beam.
This document provides an overview of contrast media used in radiology. It discusses the history of contrast media beginning with their discovery in 1896. It then covers the basics of contrast media including their physiology, modes of administration, classifications for different imaging modalities, and examples of agents used for X-ray/CT, ultrasound, and MR imaging. Specific contrast agents are described in detail including their properties, uses, and side effects. The document emphasizes the importance of using lower osmolar iodinated contrast media to reduce risks when possible.
This document provides information about a barium swallow procedure. It discusses:
1. A barium swallow examines the esophagus and stomach using barium sulfate as a contrast agent. It can detect conditions like dysphagia, gastroesophageal reflux, and tumors.
2. The procedure involves giving the patient barium suspensions to swallow in various positions so that constrictions, sphincters, and motility can be evaluated.
3. Findings of common esophageal conditions are described such as webs, rings, hernias, varices and motility disorders. Complications of the test like barium leakage are also mentioned.
Learn Barium Meal & Follow Through for the beginners from a Radiology Resident.For some image description please go through the text book "David Sutton" because i have described these image during my presentation Verbally..There are many animations used inside this presentation so to see all the pictures which are placed layer by layer with the help of animations you simple need to download this presentation first.... Thanx.
This document provides guidance for pediatric radiography technicians. It discusses preparing children for exams, building trust, using immobilization devices, evaluating developmental abnormalities, minimizing radiation exposure, and reporting suspected child abuse. Successful exams require preparing the room in advance, explaining the process to the child and parents, and using communication skills and immobilization as needed based on the child's age and cooperation level. Common pediatric conditions seen radiographically are also outlined.
Presentation1.pptx, radiological anatomy of the abdomen and pelvis.Abdellah Nazeer
This document discusses various imaging modalities used to image the abdomen and pelvis, including ultrasound, CT, MRI, fluoroscopy, and nuclear medicine scans. It provides details on how each modality works and examples of images produced. Key anatomy seen on plain films is described. The primary modalities are said to be ultrasound, CT and plain films. Choice of modality depends on clinical presentation and physical exam findings. Understanding anatomy aids in interpreting imaging studies.
Barium meal ppt presentation is very important for radiology resident , radiologist and radiographers. this slide contents lots of barium image and technique, position, indication and modification and lots of information. this presentation help alot thanks .
Basic anatomy Views -importance and positioning Interpretation Skull radiographyairwave12
The document provides instructions for various skull and sinus x-ray views including positioning, collimation, and interpretation guidelines. Key views covered include PA, Caldwell, Chamberlain-Townes, lateral, base, Schuller's, Water's, sinus lateral, and basilar views. Proper positioning is emphasized to ensure quality images and evaluation of important anatomical structures like the sinuses, orbits, and temporomandibular joints.
This document provides guidelines for taking various radiographic views of the lumbar spine, including the patient positioning, part positioning, and technical factors for each view. It describes common views like the AP, lateral, and oblique views as well as specialized views for assessing scoliosis, spondylolisthesis, and spinal fusion sites. Proper positioning and technique are emphasized to accurately visualize lumbar spine anatomy and pathology.
- Contrast media are substances used in medical imaging to increase radiographic contrast in areas where it was previously low or absent. They improve the visibility of internal structures on scans.
- There are two main types - positive contrast agents, which increase contrast, and negative contrast agents, which decrease contrast. Common positive agents are iodine-based and barium-based. Common negative agents are air and carbon dioxide.
- Contrast media are administered in different ways depending on the area being examined, such as orally, rectally, intravenously, or intra-arterially. They allow detailed examination of organ systems like the gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, and soft tissues.
Positioning and radiographic anatomy of the skullmr_koky
This document provides information on positioning and radiographic anatomy of the skull. It discusses the anatomy of the skull and lists the 8 cranial bones. It then describes various positioning considerations for skull radiography including erect vs recumbent positioning, patient comfort, hygiene, exposure factors, SID and radiation protection. Several common skull radiographic projections are outlined including the AP, lateral, PA, submentovertex and oblique projections. For each projection, the demonstrated pathology, positioning, central ray angle and structures shown are described.
This document provides positioning guidelines for radiographic imaging of the cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, lumbo-sacral spine, and sacrum. It describes the standard views, patient preparation, positioning, tube and cassette centering, and exposure settings for each anatomical region. Proper patient positioning and radiographic technique are important to obtain diagnostic images while minimizing radiation dose.
Learn Chest X-Ray With Its Normal Positioning & Radio-AnatomyDr.Santosh Atreya
Learn Chest X-Ray With Its Normal Positioning & Radio-Anatomy..For some image description please go through the text book "David Sutton" because i have described these image during my presentation Verbally..There are many animations used inside this presentation so to see all the pictures which are placed layer by layer with the help of animations you simple need to download this presentation first.... Thanx.
Barium follow through & small bowel enema ranjuRABIN PAUDEL
The document discusses barium follow through, which examines the small bowel from the duodenum to the ileocecal region by administering barium orally. It can be done as a continuation of an upper GI series or separately. Methods include single or double contrast. Double contrast uses an effervescent agent to better distend and separate bowel loops. The procedure involves preliminary films, administering contrast, and taking films over several hours to follow the barium through the small bowel. It is used to evaluate conditions like Crohn's disease and complications include leakage from an undetected perforation.
This document provides information on small bowel enema/enteroclysis procedure. It discusses the indications for the procedure including partial small bowel obstruction and Crohn's disease. It outlines the preparation process and describes how to position the Bilbao Dotter tube through the nose into the duodenum. The document discusses performing the procedure with single or double contrast and imaging techniques. Potential findings and complications are also summarized.
This document provides information on taking radiographic views of the thoracic spine, including:
- Common clinical indications that would warrant thoracic spine x-rays such as compression fractures or scoliosis.
- Instructions for setting up three standard views - the AP, lateral, and oblique positions. For each view, it describes the clinical indications, patient positioning, part positioning, and technical factors.
- For the AP view, it instructs to position the patient supine or erect with their midline and midsagittal plane aligned and to direct the CR to T7. For the lateral view, it describes positioning the patient laterally with their spine parallel to the table and directing the CR to T
This document discusses emergency drugs used in radiology departments. It notes that medical emergencies may occur due to medications, procedures, or pre-existing conditions. A crash cart containing emergency drugs like adrenaline, atropine, buscopan, hydrocortisone, and dopamine is used to manage complications from sedation, invasive procedures, or errors. While serious emergencies are rare, the increasing complexity of procedures means they will become more frequent. It is essential that radiology departments are prepared to deal with any emergency immediately. The presentation will discuss emergency drugs and their uses.
Magnification(macro and micro radiography), distortionparthajyotidas11
This document discusses the techniques of macroradiography and microradiography. It defines macroradiography as producing a magnified image using increased object to film distance. It describes the principles of magnification using fixed focus-film distance or fixed focus-object distance. Unsharpness from movement or geometry is discussed. Applications include skull and wrist radiography. Microradiography uses ultra-fine film and high voltages for small object imaging. Mass miniature radiography was used to screen for tuberculosis using portable fluoroscopic equipment. Distortion can occur if objects are not parallel to the central x-ray beam.
This document provides an overview of contrast media used in radiology. It discusses the history of contrast media beginning with their discovery in 1896. It then covers the basics of contrast media including their physiology, modes of administration, classifications for different imaging modalities, and examples of agents used for X-ray/CT, ultrasound, and MR imaging. Specific contrast agents are described in detail including their properties, uses, and side effects. The document emphasizes the importance of using lower osmolar iodinated contrast media to reduce risks when possible.
This document provides information about a barium swallow procedure. It discusses:
1. A barium swallow examines the esophagus and stomach using barium sulfate as a contrast agent. It can detect conditions like dysphagia, gastroesophageal reflux, and tumors.
2. The procedure involves giving the patient barium suspensions to swallow in various positions so that constrictions, sphincters, and motility can be evaluated.
3. Findings of common esophageal conditions are described such as webs, rings, hernias, varices and motility disorders. Complications of the test like barium leakage are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of abdominal anatomy as seen on various medical imaging modalities. It begins with the landmarks used to divide the abdomen into quadrants and regions. It then describes the radiological modalities commonly used to image the abdomen, including ultrasound, CT, x-ray, and MRI. The document proceeds to provide details on the surface anatomy, radiological anatomy, and normal measurements of major abdominal organs and structures such as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, stomach, intestines, kidneys, bladder, and blood vessels.
The document describes the anatomy of the abdominal regions, abdominal wall and cavity, and gastrointestinal organs including the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. It divides the abdomen into 9 regions based on 4 reference planes and lists the organs contained within each region. It details the layers of the abdominal wall and peritoneal cavity. It provides information on the esophagus, stomach sections and functions, and sections of the small intestine including the duodenum.
The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs that vary in size between individuals. The left kidney typically sits higher than the right. Each kidney contains an outer cortical region and inner medullary pyramids drained by minor calyces that join to form major calyces, eventually draining into the renal pelvis. Kidney anatomy is important for surgical and interventional procedures. Radiological imaging such as ultrasound, CT and MRI can evaluate kidney size, structure and enhancement following contrast administration.
The document summarizes key anatomical features of the small and large intestines. It describes the parts, positions, lengths, and arterial supply of the small intestine. It also details differences between the jejunum and ileum. For the large intestine, it outlines the caecum, appendix, and parts of the colon including the transverse and pelvic colons. It compares features of the small and large intestines and describes peritoneal coverings and blood supply of parts of the large bowel.
Anatomy of abdomen and regions of trunkFaarah Yusuf
The document describes the anatomy of the abdominal regions and organs. It discusses nine abdominal regions defined by four planes. Each region contains specific organs. It then details the layers of the abdominal wall and peritoneal cavity. Finally, it provides in-depth descriptions of key abdominal organs including the liver, gallbladder, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and their structures and functions.
The document describes the anatomy of the abdominal regions and organs. It discusses nine abdominal regions defined by four planes. Each region contains specific organs. It then describes the layers of the abdominal wall and the peritoneal cavity. Finally, it provides details on the anatomy and structures of several key abdominal organs, including the liver, gallbladder, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and biliary tree.
The document describes the anatomy of the abdominal regions, abdominal wall and cavity, and gastrointestinal organs including the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. It divides the abdomen into 9 regions based on 4 reference planes and lists the contents of each region. It details the layers of the abdominal wall and peritoneal cavity. It provides information on the esophagus, stomach sections and functions, and sections of the small intestine including the duodenum.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ located in the upper abdomen between the esophagus and small intestine. It acts as a reservoir for food and aids in the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The stomach has two openings - the cardiac orifice where it connects to the esophagus and the pyloric orifice where it connects to the small intestine. It is divided into sections including the fundus, body, antrum, and pyloric canal. The stomach receives blood supply from branches of the celiac artery and drains into gastric lymph nodes. It is innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems to aid in digestion. Diseases that commonly
This document provides details on the anatomy and histology of the kidneys. It discusses the location, structure, blood supply and drainage of the kidneys. Some key points include:
- The kidneys are located retroperitoneally on either side of the vertebral column.
- Internally, they contain an outer cortex and inner medulla, separated by renal columns and arches.
- They are supplied by renal arteries which branch numerous times to form the renal microvasculature. Renal veins drain into the vena cava.
- Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney, each containing a renal corpuscle for filtration and tubules for reabsorption and secretion to form urine
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the upper abdominal cavity. It describes the structures and organs contained within the upper abdominal cavity, including the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, esophagus and duodenum. It discusses the layers of the peritoneum and how different organs are related to the peritoneum (intraperitoneal, retroperitoneal, etc.). It also describes the ligaments connecting structures like the liver, stomach and duodenum.
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. It allows the organs to move freely within the cavity. The peritoneum is divided into the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which covers the organs. Different peritoneal folds connect organs to the walls or to other organs, including the omenta, mesentery, mesocolon, and ligaments. The peritoneal cavity is the potential space between the parietal and visceral layers that contains a small amount of fluid. It is divided into the greater and lesser sacs, with the epiploic foramen connecting them.
The small intestine is the part of the alimentary canal that is continuous with the stomach at the pyloric orifice and leads into the large intestine through the iliocaecal valve. It is the part where the chemical digestion of food is completed and most of the absorption of nutrients take place.
It extends from the ileum to the anus.
It reabsorbs water converting liquid chyme into semi solid stools.
It consists of the following parts: 1)Caecum and vermiformis appendix. 2)Ascending colon and hepatic flexure. 3) Transverse colon and splenic flexure 4)Descending colon 5)Sigmoid colon 6) Rectum and 7) Anal canal.
The proximal half as far as the splenic flexure – reabsorbs water and electrolytes from fluid chyme .
The distal colon beyond the splenic flexure-stores formed faeces until they are excreted.
The kidneys are a pair of excretory organs located retroperitoneally on either side of the vertebral column. They remove waste and regulate water and electrolyte balance. Each kidney contains an inner medulla and outer cortex. The kidneys receive blood supply from the renal arteries and drain into the renal veins. They are important for regulating blood pressure and red blood cell production. Kidney diseases can cause hypertension, renal failure and require dialysis in severe cases.
The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs located on the posterior abdominal wall. The left kidney is slightly higher than the right kidney. Kidney size varies with gender and stature. Each kidney has an oblique orientation with the hilum angled anteriorly. The kidneys are surrounded by renal fascia and covered by a fibrous capsule. The kidneys contain an outer cortex and inner medulla divided into renal pyramids drained by minor calyces that join to form major calyces and eventually the renal pelvis. The kidneys receive nerve supply from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. Each kidney is bean-shaped and located retroperitoneally on either side of the spine. The kidneys contain an outer cortex and inner medulla and are supplied by the renal arteries. The urine produced by the kidneys drains through the ureters into the urinary bladder for storage and then exits through the urethra.
The liver is the largest gland in the body, located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen. It has two surfaces - the diaphragmatic surface fits beneath the diaphragm, while the irregular visceral surface contacts other abdominal organs. Ligaments such as the falciform and coronary ligaments attach the liver within the abdominal cavity. The liver receives blood from the hepatic artery and portal vein, and has associated biliary ducts and lymph drainage. It performs many vital functions including bile production, glycogen storage, and clotting factor synthesis.
This document provides an overview of the abdomen and pelvis. It begins by defining the abdomen and describing its anterior and posterior walls. It then discusses the contents of the abdomen, including the digestive system (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine), hepato-biliary apparatus (liver, gallbladder, bile ducts), and peritoneum. For each organ, it provides details on location, structure, arterial supply, venous drainage and lymph drainage. The small intestine is subdivided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum with specifics for each section.
Dual energy CT utilizes two different x-ray spectra to characterize tissues. It can help address challenges with single energy CT like lesion detection and image noise. Dual energy CT works by analyzing how materials attenuate x-rays differently at various energies, allowing differentiation of substances like iodine and calcium. There are several technical approaches to dual energy CT, including sequential acquisition with two scans, rapid voltage switching between two voltages, and dual-source CT with two tube-detector pairs. Post-processing involves material decomposition and differentiation using image-domain or projection-domain algorithms.
The document provides information on darkroom procedures during radiography, including loading and unloading film cassettes under safelights. It discusses the loading bench area and describes the steps for unloading and loading cassettes. It then summarizes the key steps in film processing, including wetting, developing, fixing, washing and drying. Developing converts the latent image to visible form using chemical developers. Fixing removes remaining silver halide using ammonium thiosulphate. Precautions are outlined when handling processing chemicals due to their ability to penetrate skin and cause damage.
MRI provides detailed images of the brain without exposing patients to radiation. It is useful for evaluating conditions like tumors, strokes, and multiple sclerosis. The document describes the MRI procedure for brain imaging including patient preparation, head coils, sequences, and protocols. Key sequences discussed are T1-weighted, T2-weighted, FLAIR, diffusion weighted, MR angiography, and MR venography.
The document is a presentation about radiographic cassettes by Sudil Paudyal. It discusses the functions and features of radiographic cassettes, how they are constructed, the materials used and different types available including single screen, double screen, curved, gridded, multi-section, vacuum, and computed radiography cassettes. It also covers how cassettes should be loaded, unloaded, and cared for to maximize the life of the intensifying screens.
Portable and mobile radiographic units can be either portable or mobile. Portable units are small enough to be carried by one person for use outside of a radiology department. Mobile units are larger and mounted on wheels, able to be moved throughout a hospital. Both use an X-ray tube, generator, and control unit to produce radiographic images. Newer units are using high frequency generators, computed radiography, or direct radiography for more efficient and higher quality imaging. Mobile C-arm units are important for fluoroscopy in operating rooms.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Our backs are like superheroes, holding us up and helping us move around. But sometimes, even superheroes can get hurt. That’s where slip discs come in.
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2. General Anatomy:
The largest cavity of the body,
Bounded
Anteriorly - by abdominal wall muscles
Posteriorly - by the vertebral column and posterior wall
muscles
Laterally - by lower ribs and parts of muscles of abdominal
wall
Superiorly - by the diaphragm
Inferiorly - by pelvic cavity
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 2
3. Abdominal walls:
Bony support of the abdomen is minimal, consisting only of lumbar
vertebrae and portions of the pelvis (the ilium and the pubis).
Muscles: Five pairs of muscles form anterior wall:
Rectus abdominis
External oblique
Internal oblique
Transversus abdominis
Three pairs form the posterior wall:
Quadratus lumborum
Psoas major
Iliacus
Linea alba: A very strong midline tendinous cord, extends from xiphoid
process to symphysis pubis. Divides the anterior abdominal wall
longitudinally into two identical halves.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 3
5. Planes and regions:
Divided either into four quadrants or nine regions
Divided into four quadrants by a transverse and a mid sagittal
plane that intersect at the umbilicus.
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ),
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ),
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ), and
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ).
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 5
6. Divided into nine regions by two transverse and two vertical
planes
The upper transverse plane - The Transpyloric Plane,
Lies midway between suprasternal notch and symphysis pubis,
approximately midway between the upper border of
xiphisternum and umbilicus.
Posteriorly, passes through the body of the first lumbar
vertebra;
Anteriorly, passes through the tips of the right and left ninth
costal cartilages.
The lower transverse plane - The Transtubercular Plane,
Lies at the level of tubercles of iliac crest anteriorly, and near
the upper border of fifth lumbar vertebra posteriorly.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 6
7. The two parasagittal (vertical) planes –
Lie at right-angles to the two transverse planes.
They run vertically, passing through a point midway between
the anterior superior iliac spine and the symphysis pubis on
each side.
These planes divide the abdomen into nine regions:
centrally from above to below epigastric, umbilical and
hypogastric regions and
laterally from above to below right and left hypochondriac,
lumbar and iliac regions.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 7
9. Contents:
contains the greater part of the alimentary tract,
some of the accessory organs to digestion, viz. the liver,
pancreas and spleen,
some of the urinary organs i.e. the kidneys,upper part of the
ureters and the suprarenal glands.
Most of these structures, as well as the wall of the cavity are
more or less covered by an extensive and complicated serous
membrane, the peritoneum.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 9
10. Fig: organs of anterior part of abdominal cavity
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 10
11. Fig: organs of posterior part of abdominal cavity
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 11
12. Peritoneum:
The serous membrane related to the viscera of the abdominal
cavity.
Divided into two layers:
Parietal Layer : Lines the body wall and covers the
retroperitoneal organs.
Visceral Layer : Composed of two parts :
Covering of the surface of the peritoneal organs.
Mesentery-a double layer of peritoneum that suspends
part of the GI tract from the body wall.
Peritoneal cavity : The potential space located between the
parietal and visceral layers.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 12
13. Abdominal Viscera
Viscera are classified as:
Peritoneal organs - have a mesentery and are almost
completely
enclosed in peritoneum. These organs are mobile.
Retroperitoneal organs - are partially covered with peritoneum
and are immobile or fixed organs.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 13
14. In a nutshell
Major Peritoneal organs: Stomach, Liver and gallbladder,
Spleen, Beginning of duodenum, Tail of pancreas, Jejunum,
Ileum, Appendix , Transverse colon, Sigmoid colon
Major Secondary Retroperitoneal organs: Most of duodenum,
Most of pancreas, Ascending colon ,Descending colon , Upper
rectum
Major Primary Retroperitoneal Organs: Kidney , Adrenal
gland, Ureter, Aorta, Inferior venacava, Lower rectum, Anal
canal
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 14
15. Liver:
Lies mostly in the right hypochondrium, and protected by rib
cage.
Divided into two lobes of unequal size by the falciform
ligament.
Fissures for the ligamentum teres and the ligamentum
venosum, the porta hepatis, and the fossa for the gallbladder
further subdivide the right lobe into the right lobe proper, the
quadrate lobe, and the caudate lobe.
Has a central hilus, or porta hepatis, which receives venous
blood from the portal vein and arterial blood from the hepatic
artery.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 15
16. The central hilus also transmits the common bile duct, which
collects bile produced by the liver.
These structures, known collectively as the portal triad
The hepatic veins drain the liver by collecting blood from the
liver sinusoids and returning it to the inferior vena cava.
Gallbladder :
lies in a fossa on the visceral surface of the liver to the right of
the quadrate lobe.
It stores and concentrates bile, which enters and leaves through
the cystic duct. The cystic duct joins the common hepatic duct
to form the common bile duct.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 16
17. Fig: Liver, turned up to show posterior surface
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 17
18. Pancreas
Most of the pancreas is secondarily retroperitoneal, but the
distal part of the tail of the pancreas remains peritoneal . The
tip of the tail of the pancreas reaches the hilus of the spleen.
Both pancreatic ducts open into the second portion of the
duodenum.
Spleen
a peritoneal organ in the upper left quadrant that is related to
the left 9th, 10th, and 11th ribs. Fracture of these ribs may
lacerate the spleen.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 18
19. Stomach:
has a lesser curvature, which is connected to the porta hepatis
of the liver by the lesser omentum, and a greater curvature
from which the greater omentum is suspended.
The cardiac region receives the esophagus.
The dome-shaped upper portion of the stomach, which is
normally filled with air, is the fundus.
The main center portion of the stomach is the body.
The pyloric portion of the stomach has a thick muscular wall
and narrow lumen that leads to the duodenum.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 19
20. Fig: Abd. cavity showing greater and lesser Fig:Longitudinal section of stomach
omentum
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 20
21. Kidneys and ureters:
Kidney's Relation to the Posterior Abdominal Wall
Both kidneys are in contact with the diaphragm, psoas major,
and quadratus lumborum .
Right kidney-contacts the above structures and the 12th rib.
Left kidney-contacts the above structures and the 11th and
12th ribs
Ureter's Relation to the Posterior Abdominal Wall
The ureter lies on the anterior surface of the psoas major.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 21
22. Fig: Relation of kidneys and ureters to posterior abdominal wall
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 22
23. Kidneys:
A pair of bean-shaped organs approximately 12 cm long. They
extend from vertebral level T12 to L3 when the body is in the
erect position. The right kidney is positioned slightly lower
than the left because of the mass of the liver.
Internal structure
Within the dense, connective tissue of the renal capsule, the
kidney substance is divided into an outer cortex and an inner
medulla
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 23
24. Cortex-contains glomeruli, Bowman's capsules, and proximal
and distal convoluted tubules. It forms renal columns, which
extend between medullary pyramids.
Medulla--consists of 10 to 18 striated pyramids and contains
collecting ducts and loops of Henle. The apex of each pyramid
ends as a papilla where collecting ducts open.
Calyces-the minor calyces receive one or more papillae and
unite to form major calyces,of which there are two to three per
kidney.
Renal pelvis--the dilated upper portion of the ureter that
receives the major calyces.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 24
25. Fig: cross section of a kidney
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 25
26. Ureters : are fibro-muscular tubes that connect the kidneys to
the urinary bladder in the pelvis.
Urinary Bladder:
The urinary bladder is covered superiorly by peritoneum.
The body is a hollow muscular cavity.
The neck is continuous with the urethra.
The trigone is a smooth triangular area of mucosa located
internally at the base of the bladder.
The base of the triangle is superior and bounded by the two
openings of the ureters.
The apex of the trigone points inferiorly and is the opening
for the urethra.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 26
28. For any body habitus whether hypersthenic or asthenic,
abdominal viscera occupy a lower position:
in inspiration compared with expiration;
in the erect position compared with the recumbent position;
with age and the associated loss of muscle tone.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 28
30. Radiography:
Preparation:
Careful preliminary patient preparation of the intestinal and
gastric contents is important for a clear view of all the
abdominal structures.
For non-acute conditions, patient preparation is as follows:
(1) Patient placed on a low-residue diet for (2 days) prior to x-
ray examination to prevent formation of gas due to excessive
fermentation of the intestinal contents
(2) Patient should be instructed to take some laxative the night
before the examination.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 30
31. Exposure technique:
In examinations of the abdomen without a contrast medium, it
is necessary to obtain maximum soft tissue differentiation
throughout its different regions.
Because of the wide range in thickness of the abdomen and the
delicate differences in physical density between the contained
viscera, it is necessary to use a more critical exposure
technique than is required to demonstrate the difference in
density between an opacified organ and the structures adjacent
to it.
The exposure factors should thus be adjusted to produce a
radiograph with moderate gray tones and less black and white
contrast.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 31
32. A sharply demonstrated outline of the psoas muscles, lower
border of liver, kidneys ribs and spinous processes of the
lumbar vertebra are the best criteria for judging the quality of
an abdominal radiograph.
High mA and shorter exposure times must be used to freeze
voluntary and involuntary organ movements (breathing and
bowel peristalsis).
Exposure is taken on second full arrested expiration (to
displace diaphragm upward ) to give a better view of the
abdominal structures.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 32
33. Immobilization:
One of the prime requisite in abdominal examinations is the
prevention of movement, both voluntary and involuntary.
To prevent muscle contraction, the patient must be adjusted
in a comfortable position so that he can relax.
A compression band may be applied across the abdomen for
immobilization but not compression.
The exposure should be made 1-2 sec after suspension of
respiration to allow involuntary movement of viscera to
subside.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 33
34. Radiation protection:
Gonadal shields should often be used on males (upper edge of
the shield at the symphysis pubis). For females, shields are
used only where they could not obscure essential anatomical
structures (the lower border of the shield should be at the
symphysis pubis).
For potential early pregnancy, the ‘10-day Rule’ (the LMP)
must always be observed, unless permission has been given by
the medical specialist as to ‘ignore’ it, e.g., in the case of an
emergency (e.g., trauma), or in case of a female with a
removed uterus.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 34
35. Radiographic projections:
Basic : Antero-posterior – supine (KUB) (so named because it
includes the kidneys, ureters and bladder).
Alternative: Postero-anterior – prone
Supplementary: Antero-posterior –erect
Anteroposterior – left lateral decubitus
Lateral
Lateral- dorsal decubitus
Anterior and posterior obliques ( for
contrast studies)
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 35
36. Indications:
Bowel obstruction
Perforation
Renal pathology
Acute abdomen
Foreign body localization
Toxic megacolon
Aortic aneurysm
Control or preliminary films for contrast studies
Detection of calcification or abnormal gas collection
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 36
37. AP-supine (KUB)
Patient position:
Patient supine, with the median sagittal plane at right angles
Pelvis adjusted so that the ASIS are equidistant from the table
Cassette placed longitudinally and positioned so that the symphysis pubis is
included
Arms placed alongside the trunk or above the head.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 37
38. Centering of beam:
Vertical central ray directed approx. at the level of a point 1 cm below the
line joining the iliac crests.
Equipment setting: ( for screen film combination)
Kv mA S mAs FFD Film Grid focus
size
65 300 0.12 36 100 cm 35 X 43 Yes large
cm
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 38
39. Picture criteria:
Whole of abdomen from upper abdomen to symphysis pubis.
Lateral abdominal wall and the properitoneal fat layer.
Psoas muscle, lower border of liver and the kidneys.
Ribs and spinous processes of the lumbar vertebra.
Whole of the urinary tract should be visualized.
Bowel gas pattern with minimal unsharpness.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 39
41. PA- prone
When kidneys are not of primary interest, PA projection should be used.
It reduces patient gonad dose compared to the AP projection
Patient position:
Patient prone, with median sagittal plane at right angles to the table
Arms up beside the head and both legs extended
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 41
42. CR, equipment setting, picture criteria same as supine projection.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 42
43. Lateral:
Position of patient:
Patient turned onto the side of examination, with hands resting near the
head. The hips and knees are flexed for stability.
With the MSP parallel to the table, the vertebral column( abt 8 cm anterior
to the posterior skin surface) positioned over the midline of the table
Immobilization band applied across the pelvis.
Cassette centered at the level of iliac crests.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 43
44. Centring of the beam:
Vertical central ray directed to the centre of the cassette
Equipment setting:
Kv mA S mAs FFD Film Grid focus
size
75 300 0.12 64 100 cm 35 X 43 Yes large
cm
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 44
45. Picture criteria:
The prevertebral space along with abdominal aorta
Any other intra abdominal calcifications or tumour masses should be
clearly visible.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 45
46. AP -erect
Patient position:
Patient stands with the back against the
vertical bucky.
Patient’s legs separated well apart to
maintain a comfortable position.
The median sagittal plane is adjusted at
right angles and coincident with the midline
of the table.
The pelvis is adjusted so that the anterior
superior iliac spines are equidistant.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 46
47. Centring of beam:
The horizontal central ray is directed perpendicular to midpoint at the level
of iliac crests.
Equipment setting:
Kv mA S mAs FFD Film Grid focus
size
65 300 0.12 36 100 cm 35 X 43 Yes large
cm
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 47
48. Picture criteria:
Both domes of diaphragm to ensure that any free air in the peritoneal cavity
is demonstrated.
Lateral abdominal wall and properitoneal fat
Psoas muscle, lower border of liver and kidney shadows
Vertebra in center of film.
Side identification marker placed properly.
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 48
50. Lateral Decubitus -AP
Lateral decubitus is done instead of abdomen erect if
patient is unable to stand or sit.
Patient position:
Patient in lateral recumbent position
Elbows and arms flexed and hand resting near head
Cassette positioned in vertical bucky against the posterior aspect of the
trunk
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 50
51. Centring of beam:
The central ray is directed perpendicular to midpoint at the level of iliac
crest with x-ray tube horizontally.
Equipment setting:
Kv mA S mAs FFD Film Grid focus
size
65 300 0.12 36 100 cm 35 X 43 Yes large
cm
Note: Patient should be placed in lateral decubitus position for 5-10 mins to
allow the free air to rise
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 51
52. Picture criteria:
Air fluid levels when an erect abdomen cannot be obtained.
Lung area above dome of diaphragm
Lateral abdominal wall and properitoneal fat
Psoas muscle, lower border of liver and kidney shadows
No rotation
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 52
54. Lateral dorsal decubitus (supine):
Occasionally, the patient cannot sit or even be rolled on to the
side, in which case the patient remains supine and a lateral
projection is taken using a horizontal central ray.
Patient position:
Patient supine
Arms raised away from the abdomen and thorax.
Cassette positioned vertically against patient’s side
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 54
55. Centring of the beam:
The horizontal central ray is directed to the lateral aspect of the trunk so
that it is at right-angles to the cassette and centred to it.
Equipment setting:
Kv mA S mAs FFD Film Grid focus
size
75 300 0.12 36 100 cm 35 X 43 Yes large
cm
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 55
56. Picture criteria:
Thorax to the level of mid-sternum and as much of the abdomen as
possible.
Pre-vertebral space for determining the air fluid levels in abdomen.
Lung area above dome of diaphragm, without motion.
Patient elevated to demonstrate entire abdomen
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 56
57. References:
Clark’s positioning in radiography, 12th edition
Merrill’s atlas of radiographic positions and radiologic
procedures, 12th edition
Different other books and websites
11/01/12 ABDOMEN PRESENTATION BY SUDIL 57