This document discusses the use of radioactive iodine (radioiodine) to treat hyperthyroidism in children. It provides background on what radioiodine is and how it works. While radioiodine is generally safe and effective, there are some concerns about radiation exposure, particularly the potential increased risk of thyroid cancer in children. The document also presents a case study of a 14-year-old girl with Graves' disease who was treated with radioiodine after other treatments did not fully control her symptoms. It concludes that while radioiodine carries little long-term risk, it should be one of several treatment options presented to patients and families.
A short overview of Image Guided Radiotherapy process in Lung Cancer presented at TMC Kolkata circa 2016. Basic principles and concepts as well as examples are outlined.
Interpretation of laboratory thyroid function tests Hussam Elmouzi
This document discusses thyroid function tests and thyroid disease. It notes that 5% of the world population has thyroid disease. It describes the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and how thyroid hormones affect many organs. It discusses the signs and symptoms of hypo- and hyperthyroidism as well as their laboratory findings. It also discusses subclinical thyroid disease, treatment of thyroid disorders, thyroid disease in pregnancy, and congenital hypothyroidism.
The thyroid gland sits in front of the trachea. It synthesizes the hormones T3 and T4 through a process involving absorption of iodine from the diet, trapping of iodide in thyroid follicular cells, organification of iodide by binding it to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, coupling of iodotyrosines to form the hormones, and release of T3 and T4 into circulation in response to TSH. Thyroid imaging using radiopharmaceuticals like Tc-99m pertechnetate, I-123, or I-131 allows evaluation of thyroid anatomy and function through visualization and quantification of radiotracer uptake.
1) Targeted kinase inhibitors such as sorafenib show promise in treating radioactive iodine refractory thyroid cancer, with sorafenib demonstrating a partial response rate of 36% and clinical benefit in 82% of patients in one study.
2) Management of radioactive iodine refractory thyroid cancer involves local therapies when possible and enrollment in clinical trials of small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors like sorafenib, which target pathways important in thyroid cancer signaling and growth.
3) Guidelines recommend targeted kinase inhibitors as first-line treatment for radioactive iodine refractory thyroid cancer based on their improved efficacy over chemotherapy and ability to potentially prolong progression-free and overall survival.
PET imaging is useful for cancer diagnosis and management. It provides functional information about glucose metabolism in tumors that can help establish prognosis, guide treatment decisions, and assess response. PET using 18F-FDG has high sensitivity and specificity for detecting cancer. It has applications in staging, restaging, and monitoring treatment response for many cancer types including lung cancer, lymphoma, and head and neck cancers. PET can identify tumor involvement that may be missed by anatomical imaging alone.
Nuclear medicine techniques such as radioactive iodine scans and therapy are important in evaluating and treating thyroid diseases. Radioactive iodine is selectively taken up and concentrated in the thyroid gland, allowing functional imaging and selective internal radiotherapy for hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer. Radioactive iodine therapy is the primary treatment for Graves' disease and toxic multinodular goiter. It is also used to ablate residual thyroid tissue after surgery and treat thyroid cancer metastases. Precautions must be taken after radioactive iodine therapy to limit radiation exposure to others.
A short overview of Image Guided Radiotherapy process in Lung Cancer presented at TMC Kolkata circa 2016. Basic principles and concepts as well as examples are outlined.
Interpretation of laboratory thyroid function tests Hussam Elmouzi
This document discusses thyroid function tests and thyroid disease. It notes that 5% of the world population has thyroid disease. It describes the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and how thyroid hormones affect many organs. It discusses the signs and symptoms of hypo- and hyperthyroidism as well as their laboratory findings. It also discusses subclinical thyroid disease, treatment of thyroid disorders, thyroid disease in pregnancy, and congenital hypothyroidism.
The thyroid gland sits in front of the trachea. It synthesizes the hormones T3 and T4 through a process involving absorption of iodine from the diet, trapping of iodide in thyroid follicular cells, organification of iodide by binding it to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, coupling of iodotyrosines to form the hormones, and release of T3 and T4 into circulation in response to TSH. Thyroid imaging using radiopharmaceuticals like Tc-99m pertechnetate, I-123, or I-131 allows evaluation of thyroid anatomy and function through visualization and quantification of radiotracer uptake.
1) Targeted kinase inhibitors such as sorafenib show promise in treating radioactive iodine refractory thyroid cancer, with sorafenib demonstrating a partial response rate of 36% and clinical benefit in 82% of patients in one study.
2) Management of radioactive iodine refractory thyroid cancer involves local therapies when possible and enrollment in clinical trials of small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors like sorafenib, which target pathways important in thyroid cancer signaling and growth.
3) Guidelines recommend targeted kinase inhibitors as first-line treatment for radioactive iodine refractory thyroid cancer based on their improved efficacy over chemotherapy and ability to potentially prolong progression-free and overall survival.
PET imaging is useful for cancer diagnosis and management. It provides functional information about glucose metabolism in tumors that can help establish prognosis, guide treatment decisions, and assess response. PET using 18F-FDG has high sensitivity and specificity for detecting cancer. It has applications in staging, restaging, and monitoring treatment response for many cancer types including lung cancer, lymphoma, and head and neck cancers. PET can identify tumor involvement that may be missed by anatomical imaging alone.
Nuclear medicine techniques such as radioactive iodine scans and therapy are important in evaluating and treating thyroid diseases. Radioactive iodine is selectively taken up and concentrated in the thyroid gland, allowing functional imaging and selective internal radiotherapy for hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer. Radioactive iodine therapy is the primary treatment for Graves' disease and toxic multinodular goiter. It is also used to ablate residual thyroid tissue after surgery and treat thyroid cancer metastases. Precautions must be taken after radioactive iodine therapy to limit radiation exposure to others.
This document discusses advances in oncological PET imaging. It begins by outlining limitations of current PET/CT imaging related to false positives, false negatives, and radiation exposure. It then describes several advances in PET imaging including new radiotracers for tumor characterization, instrumentation improvements, software enhancements to reduce radiation dose, and hybrid PET/MRI imaging. The document provides examples of how various new radiotracers beyond FDG can provide clinical benefits for tumor imaging and characterization.
The document summarizes thyroid embryology, anatomy, physiology, imaging, and diseases. It discusses that the thyroid gland develops from the median primordium in the first month and migrates to both sides of the trachea by the seventh week. The thyroid is located in the front of the neck and produces hormones T4 and T3 regulated by TSH. Common thyroid diseases include goiter, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroiditis. Imaging methods like scintigraphy, ultrasound, CT, and MRI are used to evaluate the thyroid and detect diseases.
This document discusses radionuclide imaging of the thyroid and parathyroid glands. It describes the use of various radiotracers like I-123, I-131, Tc-99m pertechnetate, and Tc-99m MIBI in thyroid scans, thyroid uptake measurements, and parathyroid scans to evaluate conditions like hyperthyroidism, thyroid nodules, thyroid cancer, and hyperparathyroidism. Imaging findings are presented for different pathological cases. Preparation, technique, interpretation and clinical indications for these nuclear medicine procedures are provided.
This document discusses anti-angiogenic therapy in colorectal cancer. It begins with defining cancer and explaining the cell cycle and angiogenesis. It then summarizes several phase 3 trials that evaluated anti-angiogenic therapies in metastatic colorectal cancer, both as maintenance therapies and in patients with BRAF mutations. The document concludes by noting that angiogenesis is an appealing cancer treatment target, anti-angiogenic therapies have contributed to metastatic colorectal cancer treatment, and more work is still needed regarding biomarkers and adjuvant settings.
approach for rectal carcinoma and managementrajendra meena
This document discusses the multidisciplinary approach to managing rectal carcinoma. It defines rectal carcinoma and provides details on incidence, risk factors, staging, diagnostic workup including various imaging modalities, and the roles of different specialists involved. It describes the prognostic factors and presents the tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) staging system. Surgical approaches like transanal local excision and total mesorectal excision are outlined. The roles of neoadjuvant therapy and advantages of pre-operative radiation are summarized. Clinical trials comparing outcomes of pre-operative versus post-operative chemoradiation are also reviewed.
Tumor Treating Fields; Its Use in Brain TumorsAde Wijaya
Tumor Treating Fields (TTFields) use low-intensity, intermediate-frequency electric fields to inhibit cell division in tumors. A recent study showed TTFields were able to positively impact tumor growth and significantly extend survival for glioblastoma multiforme patients when used with chemotherapy. The FDA approved TTFields for use in newly diagnosed GBM in October 2015 based on these results. TTFields represent a novel, non-invasive locoregional treatment approach with mostly mild skin side effects.
This document discusses the use of positron emission tomography (PET) in oncology. It describes how PET provides functional imaging through detection of radiolabeled tracers like 18F-FDG. PET is shown to be useful for staging and restaging of various cancers like lung cancer, lymphoma, colorectal cancer and melanoma. It has higher sensitivity than other modalities for detecting tumor recurrence or metastatic disease. The document also reviews reimbursement guidelines and practical aspects of PET imaging.
Therapeutic Application in Nuclear MedicineShatha M
This document discusses therapeutic applications of nuclear medicine. It describes how small amounts of radiopharmaceuticals are introduced into the body and targeted to specific organs or tissues to release radiation that treats cancer cells or overactive tissues. Common therapies mentioned include radioactive iodine to treat hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer, Zevalin for lymphoma, and strontium-89 or samarium-153 to relieve bone pain from cancer metastases. TheraSphere is also discussed for treating inoperable liver cancer.
A complete presentation on hypothroidism endocrine disorder based on latest editon of harrison and reference books. this presentation will help to learn about this second most common endocrine disorder.
Session Title:
Radioiodine Therapy for Hyperthyroidism: The State of the Art
Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging in Denver, CO on Tuesday, June 13, 4:45PM–6:15PM
This document provides contouring and treatment planning guidelines for stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT). It discusses indications, contraindications, simulation, target volume delineation, organ at risk contouring, dose prescription, and plan evaluation for SBRT treatment of lung, spine, liver, and other cancers. Key considerations include ensuring accurate tumor targeting given organ motion, minimizing dose to nearby organs at risk, and prescribing ablative doses in a small number of fractions to achieve tumor control.
Optimizing Radiation Therapy for Paediatric Cancers: A Case Study of Medullob...Victor Ekpo
This document discusses optimization techniques for radiotherapy in treating childhood medulloblastoma. It reviews conventional radiotherapy, intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), and proton therapy. The major side effect of treatment is ototoxicity or hearing loss. Studies show proton therapy significantly reduces ototoxicity compared to IMRT or conventional radiotherapy. While all techniques are effective when combined with chemotherapy like cisplatin, proton therapy allows for best sparing of healthy tissue and lowest toxicity rates. The goal is optimizing treatment to cure medulloblastoma while minimizing negative effects on patients' quality of life.
This document discusses the disease management of hyperthyroidism. There are three main treatment options - medication, radioactive iodine treatment, and surgery. Medications include anti-thyroid drugs, beta blockers, and iodides. Radioactive iodine treatment destroys thyroid tissue with a single dose and has high cure rates. Surgery is generally reserved for special circumstances and requires pre-operative preparation to make the patient euthyroid. The choice of treatment depends on factors like the cause and severity of disease, patient's age, and presence of other medical conditions.
This document discusses radioprotectors and focuses on amifostine. It provides background on amifostine's development, metabolism, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, side effects, and approved uses in radiation oncology to reduce toxicity in head and neck cancer and lung cancer patients. It notes that amifostine does not appear to protect tumors from radiation based on clinical studies. The document concludes by discussing potential new directions for amifostine including using it to enable dose escalation of radiation therapy or combination with novel drugs, and exploring its use to allow hypofractionated radiation schedules.
Perioperative Management of Hypothyroid Patients Undergoing Nonthyroidal SurgeryTerry Shaneyfelt
In these annotated PowerPoint slides I describe the perioperative evaluation and management of patients with hypothyroidism needing nonthyroid surgery. Remember to download these slides to view the annotations for each slide.
The document provides an overview of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), including how it works, the types of images it can produce, and its applications in various parts of the body. It explains that MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to align hydrogen protons in the body and produce signals used to form images. Key applications mentioned include neuroimaging, musculoskeletal imaging, and evaluating diseases of the abdomen, blood vessels, heart, breast and fetus.
Fractionation in radiotherapy refers to dividing the total radiation dose into smaller doses given over multiple treatment sessions. This allows healthy cells to repair sublethal damage between fractions while maximizing cancer cell kill through mechanisms like redistribution and reoxygenation. The "5 R's" of radiobiology explain fractionation: repair of sublethal damage in normal cells; redistribution of tumor cells to sensitive phases; reoxygenation of hypoxic tumor cells; repopulation of tumor cells during prolonged treatment; and intrinsic radiosensitivity differences between cell types. Fractionation schedules are tailored based on these factors to improve the therapeutic ratio for different cancers and patients.
This document discusses the management of high grade brain tumors. It begins by stating that gliomas make up 60% of primary brain tumors, with two-thirds being clinically aggressive high-grade tumors. The treatment involves a multimodality approach of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. For glioblastomas, all three modalities are typically used at initial diagnosis. The standard treatment for glioblastoma is maximal safe surgical resection followed by radiation therapy with concurrent temozolomide chemotherapy and subsequent adjuvant temozolomide chemotherapy. Radiation techniques, chemotherapy options, targeted therapies, and clinical prognostic factors are also discussed.
The document provides an outline on the physiology and causes of hyperthyroidism, also known as thyrotoxicosis. It discusses the thyroid gland, thyroid hormone synthesis and regulation, clinical features of Graves' disease and toxic multinodular goiter, diagnosis of hyperthyroidism, and management approaches including antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine therapy, surgery, and novel minimally invasive therapies. It also covers thyroid storm as a life-threatening emergency characterized by abrupt release of thyroid hormones.
A 45-year-old male presented with weight loss, tremors, sweating, anxiety, insomnia, and increased appetite and bowel movements. Examination found tachycardia, proptosis, lid retraction, and a nodule in the right thyroid lobe. Investigations of thyroid function tests, ultrasound, scan, and uptake were recommended. A diagnosis of toxic adenoma (Plummer's disease) was made, where a single autonomous nodule in the thyroid causes hyperthyroidism. Treatment options included antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine, or surgery. Complications discussed were hypothyroidism, thyroiditis, and rarely thyroid storm.
This document discusses advances in oncological PET imaging. It begins by outlining limitations of current PET/CT imaging related to false positives, false negatives, and radiation exposure. It then describes several advances in PET imaging including new radiotracers for tumor characterization, instrumentation improvements, software enhancements to reduce radiation dose, and hybrid PET/MRI imaging. The document provides examples of how various new radiotracers beyond FDG can provide clinical benefits for tumor imaging and characterization.
The document summarizes thyroid embryology, anatomy, physiology, imaging, and diseases. It discusses that the thyroid gland develops from the median primordium in the first month and migrates to both sides of the trachea by the seventh week. The thyroid is located in the front of the neck and produces hormones T4 and T3 regulated by TSH. Common thyroid diseases include goiter, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroiditis. Imaging methods like scintigraphy, ultrasound, CT, and MRI are used to evaluate the thyroid and detect diseases.
This document discusses radionuclide imaging of the thyroid and parathyroid glands. It describes the use of various radiotracers like I-123, I-131, Tc-99m pertechnetate, and Tc-99m MIBI in thyroid scans, thyroid uptake measurements, and parathyroid scans to evaluate conditions like hyperthyroidism, thyroid nodules, thyroid cancer, and hyperparathyroidism. Imaging findings are presented for different pathological cases. Preparation, technique, interpretation and clinical indications for these nuclear medicine procedures are provided.
This document discusses anti-angiogenic therapy in colorectal cancer. It begins with defining cancer and explaining the cell cycle and angiogenesis. It then summarizes several phase 3 trials that evaluated anti-angiogenic therapies in metastatic colorectal cancer, both as maintenance therapies and in patients with BRAF mutations. The document concludes by noting that angiogenesis is an appealing cancer treatment target, anti-angiogenic therapies have contributed to metastatic colorectal cancer treatment, and more work is still needed regarding biomarkers and adjuvant settings.
approach for rectal carcinoma and managementrajendra meena
This document discusses the multidisciplinary approach to managing rectal carcinoma. It defines rectal carcinoma and provides details on incidence, risk factors, staging, diagnostic workup including various imaging modalities, and the roles of different specialists involved. It describes the prognostic factors and presents the tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) staging system. Surgical approaches like transanal local excision and total mesorectal excision are outlined. The roles of neoadjuvant therapy and advantages of pre-operative radiation are summarized. Clinical trials comparing outcomes of pre-operative versus post-operative chemoradiation are also reviewed.
Tumor Treating Fields; Its Use in Brain TumorsAde Wijaya
Tumor Treating Fields (TTFields) use low-intensity, intermediate-frequency electric fields to inhibit cell division in tumors. A recent study showed TTFields were able to positively impact tumor growth and significantly extend survival for glioblastoma multiforme patients when used with chemotherapy. The FDA approved TTFields for use in newly diagnosed GBM in October 2015 based on these results. TTFields represent a novel, non-invasive locoregional treatment approach with mostly mild skin side effects.
This document discusses the use of positron emission tomography (PET) in oncology. It describes how PET provides functional imaging through detection of radiolabeled tracers like 18F-FDG. PET is shown to be useful for staging and restaging of various cancers like lung cancer, lymphoma, colorectal cancer and melanoma. It has higher sensitivity than other modalities for detecting tumor recurrence or metastatic disease. The document also reviews reimbursement guidelines and practical aspects of PET imaging.
Therapeutic Application in Nuclear MedicineShatha M
This document discusses therapeutic applications of nuclear medicine. It describes how small amounts of radiopharmaceuticals are introduced into the body and targeted to specific organs or tissues to release radiation that treats cancer cells or overactive tissues. Common therapies mentioned include radioactive iodine to treat hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer, Zevalin for lymphoma, and strontium-89 or samarium-153 to relieve bone pain from cancer metastases. TheraSphere is also discussed for treating inoperable liver cancer.
A complete presentation on hypothroidism endocrine disorder based on latest editon of harrison and reference books. this presentation will help to learn about this second most common endocrine disorder.
Session Title:
Radioiodine Therapy for Hyperthyroidism: The State of the Art
Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging in Denver, CO on Tuesday, June 13, 4:45PM–6:15PM
This document provides contouring and treatment planning guidelines for stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT). It discusses indications, contraindications, simulation, target volume delineation, organ at risk contouring, dose prescription, and plan evaluation for SBRT treatment of lung, spine, liver, and other cancers. Key considerations include ensuring accurate tumor targeting given organ motion, minimizing dose to nearby organs at risk, and prescribing ablative doses in a small number of fractions to achieve tumor control.
Optimizing Radiation Therapy for Paediatric Cancers: A Case Study of Medullob...Victor Ekpo
This document discusses optimization techniques for radiotherapy in treating childhood medulloblastoma. It reviews conventional radiotherapy, intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), and proton therapy. The major side effect of treatment is ototoxicity or hearing loss. Studies show proton therapy significantly reduces ototoxicity compared to IMRT or conventional radiotherapy. While all techniques are effective when combined with chemotherapy like cisplatin, proton therapy allows for best sparing of healthy tissue and lowest toxicity rates. The goal is optimizing treatment to cure medulloblastoma while minimizing negative effects on patients' quality of life.
This document discusses the disease management of hyperthyroidism. There are three main treatment options - medication, radioactive iodine treatment, and surgery. Medications include anti-thyroid drugs, beta blockers, and iodides. Radioactive iodine treatment destroys thyroid tissue with a single dose and has high cure rates. Surgery is generally reserved for special circumstances and requires pre-operative preparation to make the patient euthyroid. The choice of treatment depends on factors like the cause and severity of disease, patient's age, and presence of other medical conditions.
This document discusses radioprotectors and focuses on amifostine. It provides background on amifostine's development, metabolism, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, side effects, and approved uses in radiation oncology to reduce toxicity in head and neck cancer and lung cancer patients. It notes that amifostine does not appear to protect tumors from radiation based on clinical studies. The document concludes by discussing potential new directions for amifostine including using it to enable dose escalation of radiation therapy or combination with novel drugs, and exploring its use to allow hypofractionated radiation schedules.
Perioperative Management of Hypothyroid Patients Undergoing Nonthyroidal SurgeryTerry Shaneyfelt
In these annotated PowerPoint slides I describe the perioperative evaluation and management of patients with hypothyroidism needing nonthyroid surgery. Remember to download these slides to view the annotations for each slide.
The document provides an overview of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), including how it works, the types of images it can produce, and its applications in various parts of the body. It explains that MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to align hydrogen protons in the body and produce signals used to form images. Key applications mentioned include neuroimaging, musculoskeletal imaging, and evaluating diseases of the abdomen, blood vessels, heart, breast and fetus.
Fractionation in radiotherapy refers to dividing the total radiation dose into smaller doses given over multiple treatment sessions. This allows healthy cells to repair sublethal damage between fractions while maximizing cancer cell kill through mechanisms like redistribution and reoxygenation. The "5 R's" of radiobiology explain fractionation: repair of sublethal damage in normal cells; redistribution of tumor cells to sensitive phases; reoxygenation of hypoxic tumor cells; repopulation of tumor cells during prolonged treatment; and intrinsic radiosensitivity differences between cell types. Fractionation schedules are tailored based on these factors to improve the therapeutic ratio for different cancers and patients.
This document discusses the management of high grade brain tumors. It begins by stating that gliomas make up 60% of primary brain tumors, with two-thirds being clinically aggressive high-grade tumors. The treatment involves a multimodality approach of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. For glioblastomas, all three modalities are typically used at initial diagnosis. The standard treatment for glioblastoma is maximal safe surgical resection followed by radiation therapy with concurrent temozolomide chemotherapy and subsequent adjuvant temozolomide chemotherapy. Radiation techniques, chemotherapy options, targeted therapies, and clinical prognostic factors are also discussed.
The document provides an outline on the physiology and causes of hyperthyroidism, also known as thyrotoxicosis. It discusses the thyroid gland, thyroid hormone synthesis and regulation, clinical features of Graves' disease and toxic multinodular goiter, diagnosis of hyperthyroidism, and management approaches including antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine therapy, surgery, and novel minimally invasive therapies. It also covers thyroid storm as a life-threatening emergency characterized by abrupt release of thyroid hormones.
A 45-year-old male presented with weight loss, tremors, sweating, anxiety, insomnia, and increased appetite and bowel movements. Examination found tachycardia, proptosis, lid retraction, and a nodule in the right thyroid lobe. Investigations of thyroid function tests, ultrasound, scan, and uptake were recommended. A diagnosis of toxic adenoma (Plummer's disease) was made, where a single autonomous nodule in the thyroid causes hyperthyroidism. Treatment options included antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine, or surgery. Complications discussed were hypothyroidism, thyroiditis, and rarely thyroid storm.
The document discusses thyroid and anti-thyroid drugs. It describes the thyroid gland and its hormones including thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. It discusses hypothyroidism which is a deficiency of thyroid hormones, and hyperthyroidism which is an excess of thyroid hormones. Common causes and treatments of hypothyroidism include Hashimoto's disease treated with thyroid hormone replacement therapy. Graves' disease is an autoimmune cause of hyperthyroidism treated with antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine, or surgery.
This document discusses hyperthyroidism and its treatment. It defines hyperthyroidism as increased secretion of thyroid hormones due to various stimuli. It then describes the clinical types of hyperthyroidism including diffuse toxic goitre (Graves' disease), toxic nodular goitre, and toxic nodule. The document outlines the symptoms, diagnosis, and principles of treatment for hyperthyroidism including anti-thyroid drugs, radioactive iodine therapy, and surgery. Treatment options depend on factors like the type and severity of hyperthyroidism, patient age and preferences.
This document discusses thyroid hormones, their functions, and drugs used to treat thyroid disorders. It provides details on:
1. The metabolic functions of thyroid hormones including increasing glucose and fat metabolism and basal metabolic rate.
2. Drugs used to treat hyperthyroidism like thioamides which inhibit thyroid hormone synthesis, iodides which inhibit hormone release, beta blockers, and radioactive iodine.
3. Drugs used for hypothyroidism replacement like synthetic levothyroxine which has high stability and allows for laboratory monitoring of serum levels.
4. Potential adverse effects and considerations for use of these drugs during pregnancy and nursing.
This document discusses hyperthyroidism and its management. It begins with definitions of hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis. It then discusses the prevalence, anatomy, physiology and causes of hyperthyroidism. The clinical manifestations involving multiple body systems are explained in detail. Diagnostic tests including blood tests, ultrasound and radioactive iodine uptake scans are outlined. Finally, the medical management including antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine therapy and surgery are summarized.
This document discusses hyperthyroidism and Graves' disease. It provides details on:
- The causes of hyperthyroidism including circulating thyroid stimulators and thyroidal autonomy.
- The pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and laboratory findings of Graves' disease. Common signs include diffuse goiter, ophthalmopathy, and localized dermopathy.
- The treatment options for hyperthyroidism including antithyroid drugs like methimazole, radioactive iodine, and surgery. Antithyroid drugs are usually the first line treatment.
The document discusses the physiology of the thyroid gland. It describes the anatomy of the thyroid, located below the larynx. The thyroid synthesizes and secretes the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine which regulate metabolism. When functioning properly, the thyroid regulates growth and development. However, diseases can cause the thyroid to be underactive (hypothyroidism) or overactive (hyperthyroidism), producing a range of symptoms that require treatment.
Hyperthyroidism refers to excessive thyroid hormone production. Graves' disease is the most common cause. Symptoms include tremors, weight loss, palpitations, heat intolerance and eye changes. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing low TSH and high free T4 levels. Treatments include antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine ablation, or surgery. Untreated hyperthyroidism can lead to thyroid storm, weight loss, osteoporosis, heart and eye complications. Follow-up care after treatment is needed to monitor for hypothyroidism or recurrence.
The document discusses thyroid gland disorders, including hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. It describes the anatomy and function of the thyroid gland, the hormones it produces, and how they are regulated. It then discusses the causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, focusing on Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis. It also covers complications like myxedema coma and the effects of thyroid hormones on multiple body systems.
1. Lingual thyroid is a rare condition where the thyroid gland is located at the base of the tongue instead of the normal location in the neck. Investigations like thyroid scan and CT neck can help locate the gland. Treatment involves medical therapy initially and surgery if medical treatment fails.
2. Thyroglossal cysts arise from remnants of the thyroglossal duct during embryonic development of the thyroid gland. Sistrunk operation is the treatment of choice which involves removal of the cyst along with a portion of the hyoid bone and any connecting tract.
3. A cold nodule seen on a thyroid scan could indicate a benign cyst, colloid nodule, or follicular carcinoma of the thyroid
Hyperthyroidism and the safety of radioiodine in childrenmeducationdotnet
Radioiodine therapy is used to treat hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer by destroying thyroid tissue through beta particle emission. While it has been used safely in adults for over 50 years, concerns exist regarding its use in children due to their rapidly dividing cells and longer lifetime for cancer mutations to develop. However, studies have found no clear evidence that therapeutic radioiodine increases cancer risks in children, and risks from alternative treatments include recurrence and complications. Radioiodine remains an important treatment option for pediatric hyperthyroidism when medical therapy fails or is not tolerated.
The document discusses biblical revelations about nutrition and health based on passages from the Bible. It states that sickness and disease plague mankind due to a lack of knowledge, and that God's words in the Bible contain the truth about health and disease prevention. It provides examples from the Bible of the types of meat, fat, and plants that are healthy to eat according to biblical teachings.
This document presents a consensus statement on the use of the drug domperidone to support lactation. It is endorsed by experts in lactation. The statement provides background on how domperidone works to increase milk supply. It critiques a recent Health Canada warning about risks of higher doses, finding the evidence for this warning to be weak. The statement calls for more research on safety and efficacy of domperidone specifically for lactation. Recommendations are made for its use until more evidence is available.
This document discusses nutrition support in cancer patients. It begins by reviewing cancer mortality statistics and trends in the US. It then describes common nutritional alterations in cancer patients, such as early satiety, dysphagia, nausea/vomiting, taste changes, and cachexia. The document outlines nutritional assessments for cancer patients, including screening tools, physical exams, laboratory tests, and quality of life assessments. It provides criteria for nutritional intervention and goals of therapy. The document discusses nutritional management strategies for issues like mucositis, diarrhea, and neutropenia. It addresses special considerations for enteral and parenteral nutrition in cancer patients. Finally, it lists some online resources for patient and caregiver education.
This document discusses hypothyroidism. It defines hypothyroidism as a hormonal deficiency caused by dysfunction of the thyroid gland that interrupts the synthesis and secretion of T4 and TSH. It discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, classifications, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, screening, and treatment of hypothyroidism. It notes that the prevalence is estimated to be 1-7% of the population and is more common in women and older adults. Diagnosis is based on elevated TSH and low free T4 levels. Treatment goals are to normalize TSH levels and improve symptoms.
Graves' disease is an autoimmune disease characterized by an enlarged thyroid gland that secretes excess thyroid hormones (Graves' hyperthyroidism). It is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism globally and predominantly affects women of reproductive age. Graves' hyperthyroidism is caused by autoantibodies that mimic thyroid-stimulating hormone and induce excessive thyroid hormone secretion. These autoantibodies can also cause eye swelling and inflammation (Graves' orbitopathy) as well as skin swelling of the shins (pretibial myxoedema). The incidence of Graves' disease is estimated to be 20-40 cases per 100,000 people per year.
This document provides information from the GrassrootsHealth organization regarding vitamin D research and recommendations. It includes the following:
- A summary of several studies showing reductions in disease incidence as vitamin D serum levels increase from 25 ng/ml to higher levels such as 40-60 ng/ml. Diseases such as cancer, diabetes, fractures, and multiple sclerosis showed reductions.
- Charts analyzing data from over 7,000 participants in the GrassrootsHealth D*action project, showing a wide range of serum levels for any given supplemental vitamin D intake amount. Intakes of 4,000 IU/day resulted in serum levels from 10-150 ng/ml.
- Analysis suggesting supplemental intakes of 9,
The document summarizes the 25th International Conference of Organization of Teratology Information Specialists that was held in Baltimore in 2012. It discusses presentations on topics such as patient perception of teratogenic risks, how economic challenges are affecting teratology information services, epidemiological research on various exposures, and counseling approaches. The document also describes a visit by the director of the Korean Motherisk Program to learn about the program in Toronto to help shape the vision and future of the Korean Motherisk Program.
This document provides information from GrassrootsHealth on vitamin D research and dosing recommendations. It includes the following:
- A summary of studies showing reductions in disease incidence as vitamin D levels increase from 25 to over 60 ng/ml. Many diseases such as cancer, diabetes and heart disease showed reductions of over 30% at levels of 40 ng/ml or higher.
- Charts showing the wide range of serum vitamin D levels achieved at different daily supplemental intake amounts, based on data from over 7,000 participants. Intakes of 4000 IU/day resulted in levels from 20-120 ng/ml, demonstrating individual variability.
- Recommendations that total daily vitamin D intake of around 12,000 IU
Childhood demyelinating syndromes
In the past decade, the number of studies related to demyelinating diseases in children has exponentially increased. Demyelinating disease in children may be monophasic or chronic. Typical monophasic disorders in children are acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and clinically isolated syndromes, including optic neuritis and transverse myelitis. However, some cases of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis or clinically isolated syndrome progress to become chronic disorders, including multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica. This review summarizes the current knowledge on monophasic and chronic demyelinating disorders in children, focusing on an approach to diagnosis and management.
This document discusses the relationship between various autoimmune diseases and nutrition/food. It begins by introducing common autoimmune diseases that affect different organ systems. It then discusses evidence that vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis. Food restriction is also found to lower risk of systemic lupus erythematosus. The document focuses on links between vitamin D and multiple sclerosis, finding that low vitamin D levels correlate with higher MS risk and severity. Vitamin D is thought to have immunomodulatory effects that may help prevent and treat MS. Cow's milk consumption is also discussed in relation to increased type 1 diabetes risk through potential molecular mimicry.
This document summarizes medication use patterns in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) cohort. It finds that 85% of ADNI patients took 4 or more daily medications (polypharmacy), and 22% took medications from Beer's list of potentially inappropriate drugs for elderly patients. Memantine treatment was associated with more severe Alzheimer's disease, while cholinesterase inhibitors were prescribed without difference by disease severity. Treatment also differed by gender, age, and education level in both mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) groups.
This document discusses fertility preservation options for pediatric and young adult cancer patients. It finds that cancer treatments can impair development and cause infertility through damage to the ovaries, uterus, testes or hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Pelvic radiation over 2 Gy, alkylating chemotherapy, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation carry higher risks. The standard options for fertility preservation are embryo and sperm cryopreservation, though oocyte and ovarian tissue cryopreservation are gaining acceptance. No options exist yet for prepubertal boys, though experimental testicular tissue cryopreservation is available at some centers. All at-risk patients should discuss potential infertility with oncologists before starting treatment.
Type 2 diabetes is associated with increased risk of certain cancers like liver, pancreas, endometrium, colorectal, breast and bladder cancers. The relationship is complex with factors like reverse causality, detection bias, shared risk factors between diabetes and cancer, and the effects of antidiabetic medications influencing cancer risk. Metformin appears to have a neutral or protective effect on cancer risk while insulin and sulfonylureas may increase risk, though data is still limited. Further research is needed to fully understand the relationship between diabetes, antidiabetic treatments and cancer.
Transplant in pediatrics in Acute lymphoblastic Luekemia in CR1Dr. Liza Bulsara
to transplant or not to transplant pediatric luekemia in CR1 Has also been a controversial topic . here we give clear recommendation to transplant in difeerent biology group
The document summarizes an article from The LANCET Oncology journal about the epidemiology of breast cancer. It includes details about the journal such as its impact factor and indexing. The summary highlights that breast cancer risk is associated with factors that increase estrogen exposure like early menarche and late menopause. Childbearing and breastfeeding may reduce risk. While only a minority of cases are linked to gene mutations, changes to modifiable risk factors like obesity and alcohol consumption could lower breast cancer incidence. The conclusion states that identifying new lifestyle risk factors and chemoprevention trials may further progress in battling breast cancer.
Breast Cancer - Is there a link to endocrine disrupting chemicals? Breast C...MedicineAndHealthUSA
This document summarizes evidence on potential links between endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and breast cancer risk. It discusses studies finding associations between breast cancer and exposures like diethylstilbestrol (DES), post-menopausal hormone use, organochlorines like DDT and dieldrin, polychlorinated biphenyls, and chemicals in the home and workplace like phthalates and bisphenol A. While evidence is mixed, some chemicals appear to modestly increase risk, and windows of exposure during development may be important to consider.
Subclinical hypothyroidism, characterized by an elevated TSH level with normal thyroid hormone levels, is the most commonly seen thyroid dysfunction in children with Down syndrome. There is no consensus on treatment for subclinical hypothyroidism. Some guidelines recommend treatment for TSH levels over 10 mU/L, while others only recommend monitoring for levels between 5-10 mU/L. Thyroid screening and monitoring is important for children with Down syndrome due to their high risk of thyroid disorders. Treatment approaches should be based on individual factors like symptoms, growth, and presence of thyroid antibodies.
Place of Mineralocorticoid replacement in CAH : ESICON2018: Mohan T Shenoy MD DMMohan Shenoy
Namasthe. These are my powerpoint slides at the just concluded ESICON 2018 in Bhubaneshwar. I thought of sharing my effort to my medical colleagues.
Topic: Place of Mineralocorticoid replacement in CAH
Alternate Link : https://uploadfiles.io/ba0cw
Valid till Jan 4, 2019
Hope you find it useful for clinical purpose.
Regards
Mohan Shenoy
1. Brown-Séquard syndrome was first described in 1850 based on observations of machete injuries in sugar cane farmers, with key features being ipsilateral motor paralysis and mixed sensory loss below the level of the spinal cord lesion.
2. Understanding the anatomy of ascending and descending spinal tracts is important for explaining the clinical features of Brown-Séquard syndrome and other spinal cord injuries.
3. Injuries can disrupt motor or sensory tracts differently, causing varying neurological deficits depending on whether the lesion involves upper or lower motor neurons.
The document discusses several inflammatory arthropathies known as spondylarthropathies. They are commonly associated with the HLA B27 gene and involve entheses, synovium, and the spine. Major types include ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthropathy, reactive arthritis, and enteropathic arthritis. They often present with enthesitis, uveitis, and spondylitis and are treated with NSAIDs, DMARDs, anti-TNF drugs, or surgery depending on the specific condition and symptoms.
Lung cancer is classified into two main types - non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). NSCLC makes up about 80% of cases and can be further divided into squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma. SCLC accounts for 10-15% of lung cancers and grows more quickly. The main symptoms are cough, chest pain, and coughing up blood. Risk factors include smoking, asbestos exposure, and radiation exposure. Diagnosis involves tests such as sputum analysis, biopsies, CT scans, and PET scans to determine the cancer type and stage. Treatment options depend on the cancer type and stage but may include surgery, chemotherapy
Eczema herpeticum is a potentially life-threatening herpes infection that occurs when herpes simplex virus infects disrupted skin in patients with pre-existing skin conditions like eczema or atopic dermatitis. It presents with clusters of vesicles and punched-out erosions that spread and become hemorrhagic and crusted. Diagnosis involves identifying characteristic lesions along with fever and pain, and can be confirmed with tests like Tzanck smear, viral culture, or antibody testing. Aggressive treatment with IV acyclovir is required to prevent complications like herpes keratitis, which can lead to blindness. Early recognition and effective antiviral therapy are important given the potential severity of eczema her
The vagus nerve connects organs in the neck and below to the brainstem. It has both sensory and motor functions and helps control the heart rate, digestion, and other involuntary processes. Stimulation of the vagus nerve has been shown to reduce seizures, experimental pain, and inflammation, and may help treat conditions like epilepsy, obesity, and heart disease. Damage to the vagus nerve or its connections in the brainstem can impact swallowing, heart rate variability, and level of consciousness.
Poor water and sanitation are responsible for a huge global burden of disease, with contaminated water alone contributing to about 2.4 million preventable deaths per year, mainly in children. While progress has been made in increasing access to safe water and improved sanitation, current rates of progress will not meet the Millennium Development Goal targets. Water and sanitation remain a low priority on international development agendas despite their importance for health and achieving the MDGs. Coordinated efforts are still needed to address this critical issue.
This document discusses medical student electives in developing countries. It notes potential benefits like exposure to rare diseases and personal growth, but also flags ethical issues. Electives could exploit local health systems and raise false expectations. They may perpetuate neo-colonial practices by benefiting students and health systems in wealthy countries more than local populations. The document also examines how non-governmental organizations can undermine public health systems and calls for electives to minimize harm, respect local needs, and establish long-term exchange programs to provide mutual benefit.
This document provides an overview of global health by defining key terms, outlining major players and organizations, and summarizing the history and evolution of the field from 1945 to the present day. It describes how global health has shifted from a focus on infectious disease control to addressing social determinants of health and health issues that transcend national borders. Major milestones discussed include the founding of the UN and WHO, the Alma-Ata Declaration, structural adjustment policies, the Millennium Declaration and MDGs, debt relief campaigns, and the establishment of the Global Fund. The summary highlights the ongoing tension between disease-specific and comprehensive primary healthcare approaches.
The document discusses how international organizations like the WTO and treaties it has established like TRIPS and GATS impact healthcare. The WTO aims to liberalize trade and its dispute process enforces agreements. TRIPS established intellectual property standards that require drug patenting, raising prices. Some countries like Brazil and South Africa have issued compulsory licenses to produce cheaper generics, facing opposition from pharmaceutical companies but helping improve access to treatment.
Global health examines influences on health across borders, including issues like globalization, poverty, and human rights. It draws from multiple disciplines. Globalization refers to reducing barriers between countries, leading to increased trade, investment, and communication. This has effects like economic growth but also rising inequalities. Agreements like TRIPS have increased pharmaceutical patent protection globally, raising concerns about access to medicines, especially in developing countries. Networks of both commercial and civil society actors have been important in debates over balancing intellectual property with public health.
Migration of health care workers has both positive and negative effects on health. It reduces the availability of health services in source countries while increasing access in destination countries. This unequal distribution of health workers is driven by push factors like low pay and poor working conditions in source countries and pull factors like higher wages in destination countries. As a result, source countries experience worse health outcomes due to lack of health workers, while destination countries receive an indirect subsidy through the receipt and employment of trained medical professionals from poorer nations. Proposed policy responses aim to strengthen health systems in source countries, implement ethical recruitment practices, and foster partnerships between nations to promote more equitable health worker distribution.
Global institutions play major roles in health financing and policy. The key players discussed are the World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Trade Organization (WTO). The WHO is the UN agency for health, working with 192 member states. The World Bank aims to reduce poverty through loans and policy advice to developing countries. The IMF promotes international monetary cooperation and provides temporary financial assistance. The WTO, formed in 1995, ensures trade flows freely through treaties and enforcement mechanisms, which some criticize can undermine public health systems.
Haemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive condition characterized by excessive iron accumulation in the body. It affects around 0.5% of Caucasians and usually presents in the 40s-50s with a triad of pigmentation, diabetes mellitus, and hepatomegaly. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing elevated serum iron, transferrin saturation over 50%, and elevated serum ferritin. Liver biopsy can confirm iron deposition and damage. Treatment aims to reduce iron stores through weekly venesection of 1 unit of blood for 6-12 months followed by maintenance venesection.
Ascites is an abnormal collection of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, commonly caused by portal hypertension due to cirrhosis. It results from sodium and water retention triggered by vasodilation and activation of the renin-angiotensin system, as well as increased hydrostatic pressure and transudation of fluid from the liver and spleen into the peritoneal cavity. Hypoalbuminemia due to decreased liver function also contributes by reducing plasma oncotic pressure. Spironolactone is used as treatment as it is an aldosterone antagonist. Management involves dietary sodium restriction, diuretics, stopping alcohol, monitoring for complications, and procedures such as paracentesis or shunts.
The liver has two lobes, separated by veins, and is divided into sections supplied by individual blood vessels. Blood flows through hepatic arteries and portal veins into sinusoids, where waste is filtered by Kupffer cells in the space of Disse before draining into hepatic veins. The liver performs many functions including synthesizing proteins, metabolizing carbohydrates and lipids, and detoxifying hormones and drugs. Liver function can be assessed through blood tests of enzymes and proteins.
Antidepressants such as SSRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs work by increasing levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, or both in the brain. SSRIs are generally first-line treatment and safer in overdose than TCAs, but TCAs may be better for severe depression. Both classes of drugs can cause side effects like dry mouth, nausea, and sexual dysfunction. Antidepressants may take 10-20 days to work and should be continued for at least 6 months after symptoms improve to prevent relapse. Combining certain antidepressants can be dangerous due to increased serotonin levels.
Gout is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joints, which leads to acute inflammation. It typically presents as sudden severe pain, swelling and redness in one joint, most commonly the big toe. Diagnosis is made based on symptoms and identification of crystals in joint fluid under polarized microscopy. Treatment involves medications to reduce symptoms during acute attacks as well as long-term drugs like allopurinol or probenecid to lower uric acid levels and prevent future episodes. Without treatment, gout can progress to a chronic stage with multiple joint involvement and growth of tophi deposits in the tissues.
Review of orthopaedic services: Prepared for the Auditor General for Scotland...meducationdotnet
1. Orthopaedics is a large specialty that treats musculoskeletal conditions through surgery, medication, and rehabilitation. It accounts for a significant portion of NHS spending and activity in Scotland.
2. Waiting times for orthopaedic services have reduced in recent years through changes to service delivery and additional funded activity. However, further improvements to meet 18-week referral targets will be challenging to sustain.
3. There is variation in orthopaedic efficiency across Scotland that is not fully explained by resources or procedures. The report finds opportunities to use existing resources more efficiently through measures like increasing day surgery and reducing hospital length of stay.
This document discusses the use of muscle relaxants in anesthesia and the potential role of sugammadex as a reversal agent. It provides background on why muscle relaxants are used, types of muscle relaxants, and current problems with reversal agents. It then summarizes research on sugammadex, which appears to be a more effective reversal agent than anticholinesterases, allowing faster recovery from neuromuscular blockade. Sugammadex may allow safer use of muscle relaxants and replace agents like suxamethonium, but economic factors will also influence its adoption.
This document contains a series of slides related to ophthalmology. It tests the reader's knowledge on topics like visual acuity measurements, refractive errors, eye abnormalities, causes of vision loss, and eye examination techniques. The slides include images showing conditions like cataracts, glaucoma, retinal detachments, and more. Key details are provided about diagnoses, symptoms, investigations, and treatments.
2. Delivered as oral capsule or
solution
Active isotope I131
Uptake by thyroid gland
β particle release
Destruction of follicular cells
WHAT IS RADIOIODINE?
Used to treat disorders of the thyroid gland
Hyperthyroidism
Thyroid cancer
3. Concerns about radiation exposure
Caution in adopting radioiodine therapy
Divided approaches to treatment of hyperthyroidism
Enabling clinicians, patients and families to make
informed choices
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
6. 14 year old female
Diagnosed with Graves’ age 8
Shaky, nervous, anxious, thirsty and hungry
Mild goitre & eye signs
Treated with Carbimazole 30mg/day
Trial without aged 11 – returned
Concern about side effects of antithyroid medication – opted
for radioiodine treatment
CASE STUDY
7. Radiation: I131
Increased risk thyroid cancer:
Highest amongst youngest
Risk 3x greater in iodine
deficient areas
Increased risk up to dose of
2Gy
CHERNOBYL
A LESSON FROM HISTORY: EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL
EXPOSURE TO RADIATION
10. LONG TERM EFFECTS OF RADIOIODINE
•No increased risk
•Deficiency, dose, lethality
Thyroid
malignancy
•e.g. leukaemia
•Risk matched that for surgical approach
Other
malignancies
•No increased risk to offspring
•Developing foetus – hypothyroidismRisk to offspring
•Worsened in up to 15% of adults
•No evidence that this is true for childrenOphthalmology
11. Little evidence that therapeutic radioiodine is
associated with increased long-term risk
Definitive treatment – rapid resolution of symptoms
Should be one of a range of options offered to
patients and their families as first line treatment
CONCLUSION
12.
13. Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Manetti L, Tanda ML, Dell'Unto E, et al. Relation Between
Therapy for Hyperthyroidism and the Course of Graves' Ophthalmopathy. New England Journal of
Medicine. 1998;338:73 -8.
Berg GEB, Nystrom EH, Jacobsson L, Lindberg S, Lindstedt RG, Mattsson S, et al. Radioiodine
Treatment of Hyperthyroidism in a Pregnant Woman. Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 1998;39(2):357 -
61.
Cardis E, Kesminiene A, Ivanov V, Malakhova I, Shibata Y, Khrouch V, et al. Risk of Thyroid Cancer
After Exposure to 131I in Childhood. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2005;97(10):724 -32.
Chapman EM. History of the Discovery and Early Use of Radioactive Iodine. Journal of the American
Medical Association. 1983;250(15):2042 -4.
Clark JD, Gelfand MJ, Elgazzar AH. Iodine-131 Therapy of Hyperthyroidism in Pediatric Patients.
Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 1995;36:442 -5.
Freitas JE, Swanson DP, Gross MD, Sisson JC. Iodine -131: Optimal Therapy for Hyperthyroidism in
Children and Adolescents? Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 1979;20:847 -50.
Gorman CA. Radioiodine and Pregnancy. Thyroid. 1999;9(7):721 -6.
Johnstone HC, Dharmaraj P, Cheetham TD. The Evaluation and Management of Thyrotoxicosis.
Current Paediatrics. 2004;14(6):430 -7.
Kazakov VS, Demidchik EP, Astakhova LN. Thyroid Cancer After Chernobyl. Nature. 1992;359:21.
McCormack S, D.M. M, Woo M, Levitsky LL, Ross DS, Misra M. Radioactive Iodine for Hyperthyroidism
in Children and Adolescents: Referral Rate and Response to Treatment. Clinical Endocrinology.
2009;71:884 -91.
NHS Choices. Thyroid, overactive - Complications. 2010. [Accessed: 15/03/11] Available from:
http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Thyroid -over-active/Pages/Complications.aspx
Read CH, Tansey MJ, Menda Y. A 36 year Retrospective Analysis of the Efficacy and Safety of
Radioactive Iodine in Treating Young Grave's Patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &
Metabolism. 2004;89:4229 -33.
Ross DS. Radioiodine Therapy for Hyperthyroidism. New England Journal of Medicine. 2011;364:542 -
50.
Seanger EL, Thoma GE, Tompkins EA. Incidence of Leukemia Following Treatment of Hyperthyroidism.
Journal of the American Medical Association. 1968;205(12):855 -62.
REFERENCES
Editor's Notes
Radioiodine is a therapy that is used to treat disorders of the thyroid gland. Most notably it is used to treat hyperthyroidism/thyrotoxicosis and thyroid cancer (follicular and papillary)
It has been used as therapy for thyrotoxicosis for over 50 years in adults
The treatment is delivered as an oral capsule or solution, containing the active isotope I131 –which has an 8 day half life. As the thyroid glands normal function is to take up iodine the I131 is accumulated in the gland. Radioactive decay leads to emission of B particles which cause direct damage to surrounding follicles or cause indirect damage to other cells. This leads to accumulation of mutations that are often lethal to the cells causing destruction of the thyroid tissue.
The radioisotopes have a particular affinity for the cells in the thyroid that are overactive and therefore dividing at a faster rate this results in partial destruction or complete ablation of the thyroid depending on dose administered.
The topic of the safety of radioiodine is of important as there is often concern about exposing children to radiation exposure – several high profile incidents e.g. Chernobyl have highlighted the dangers of external exposure to radiation
This has led to divided approaches in the treatment of hyperthyroidism in the USA uptake of radioiodine is more routine whereas in the UK historically it has been less common for patients to be offered RAI unless first line treatment with antithyroid medications has failed. Radioiodine therapy is used far more commonly in the adult population with hyperthyroidism
In children concerns are centred around the growing child in whom cells are more rapidly dividing and therefore perceived to be at increased risk of developing mutations with a longer life span in which cancerous mutations can occur. There is also concern about damage to the germ cells and risk to the child’s future offspring.
It is therefore important to review the evidence to clarify whether there is any evidence that therapeutic radioiodine poses risks or dangers to the paediatric population
Hyperthyroidism is by definition an ‘overactive’ thyroid gland. It is a condition associated with high levels circulating thyroid hormones
Graves’ disease is the main cause in of this in children. It is an autoimmune process in which the body develops antibodies to TSH receptors of the cells in the thyroid gland. These autoantibodies attach to the TSH receptor mimicking TSH and causing receptor activation. This leads to the release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Common features:
Eye problems include proptosis/exopthalmos with wide palpebral fissures and stare. Lid lag and optic atrophy often feature.
Goitre: non-tender symmetrical enlargement of the thyroid gland
Symptoms often lead to behavioural problems and social disturbance and some children present with similar features to ADHD
Few children undergo spontaneous remission – so treatment is required to manage their symptoms
There are a number of methods of managing hyperthyroidism –
B blockers: can be used to provide relief from symptoms e.g. propranolol
Antithyroid medications e.g. carbimazole. These cause side effects in 20-30% of children including leukopenia (reduced WBC), hepatitis, skin reactions and aplastic anaemia. Their action is mediated by conversion of carbimazole to methimazole which acts on thyroid peroxidase to reduce free hormone production
Surgical resection : This is associated with the risk of vocal cord paralysis due to damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve and also hypocalcaemia. Unless completely resected there is an ongoing risk of recurrence.
Radioiodine
I will explore the safety of radioiodine in the rest of this presentation
Cardis et. al. 2005 explored the effects of external exposure to radiation following the Chernobyl disaster. This environmental radiation was composed largely of radioactive isotopes of iodine.
The Increased risk of thyroid cancer was determined to be mostly due to the I 131 isotope.
The risk of developing thyroid cancer was three times higher in iodine deficient areas
Risk could be reduced by 3 times by providing iodine supplementation
Linear dose response relationship up to 2Gray
Kazakov 1992 outline that the thyroid cancers developing amongst this population were primarily papillary carcinomas
Effects of the Chernobyl radiation disaster:
This led to a large increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer in children and adolescents as outlined above. The effects began to be seen less than 5 years after the incident
Increased from less than 1 / 100, 000 children to 8/100,000 in 2002.
There is a thought that children are more susceptible to the effects of radiation due to their smaller thyroid glands and the higher rate of cell division as they grow which increases the opportunity for malignant mutation of cells.
However the authors of the above study also identified that much of the population was iodine deficient at the time of the incident and that this can lead to increased uptake of radioactive iodine causing the thyroid gland to be flooded with radioactive iodine from the environment
Short term side effects:
Clark et. al. 1995 – looked at short term effects of RAI in children & found that vomiting, thyroiditis and thyroid nodules were the most common outcomes
90% of those children treated for whom the treatment aim was to ablate the thyroid become hypothyroid and required lifelong medication with thyroxine to restore thyroid hormones. This can be problematic if compliance is poor. The adolescent outlined in the earlier case study gained 20kg in the first year following RAI.
Thyroid storm: This is linked to excess thyroid hormone release in the 15 days following treatment and can lead to tachycardia, jaundice, dehydration, agitation and confusion. There are rare reports of this in the literature and there is some debate as to whether the true cause is related to withdrawal of antithyroid medications before providing RAI.
Hypothyroidism – need to take lifelong thyroxine replacement therapy – can be a problem if the child stuggles with compliance!
Thyroid cancer-
Rivkees – point out that higher doses of radioiodine are used in therapeutic treatment – iodine deficiency played a part in the after effects of the Chernobyl disaster. External radiation often contains multiple isotopes of radioactive iodine and it is not possible to attribute the total effect to I131 alone.
Robbins and Schneider suggest that the higher dose of radioiodine associated with RAI therapy is more likely to induce cell death leading to less potential for oncogenic mutations to develop
Saenger – focussed on the association between radioiodine and leukemia. They found that the risk was the same for those undergoing radioiodine vs. surgical approach
Other studies have looked at whether the risk of other cancers are increased however no significant increases have been detected
Risk to offspring: Both Read and Freitas suggest that there is no increase in risk of miscarriage or congenital abnormality following treatment with radioiodine. A study looking at pregnant women found that exposure in utero is linked with hypothyroidism in the child and the development of figurative memory impairment
Ophthalmology: Ophthalmological complications of hyperthyroidism have been observed to be worsened in adults who had RAI – but the same effect has not been seen in children. Where it does occur can be treated with steroids.