This document provides an introduction to critical thinking and the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning. It defines logic and reasoning, and explains that deductive reasoning moves from general premises to specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations. Examples of each type of reasoning are provided. The key differences are that deductive reasoning establishes absolute truths if the premises are true, while inductive reasoning reaches tentative conclusions.
A deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.:
That the world is flat was at one time a popular fallacy.
a misleading or unsound argument.
deceptive, misleading, or false nature; erroneousness.
Logic. any of various types of erroneous reasoning that render arguments logically unsound.
Obsolete. deception.
“A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.” Wikipedia contributors. "Syllogism." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 7 Jun. 2015. Web. 14 Jun. 2015
This slideshare gives a demonstration of the writing process that students can use in the college classroom. This is a simple three step process that involves: planning, drafting and revising. Developing as an academic writer does not have to be a difficult task. Follow the three steps, and you will be on your way to improving or enhancing your writing skills.
A deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.:
That the world is flat was at one time a popular fallacy.
a misleading or unsound argument.
deceptive, misleading, or false nature; erroneousness.
Logic. any of various types of erroneous reasoning that render arguments logically unsound.
Obsolete. deception.
“A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.” Wikipedia contributors. "Syllogism." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 7 Jun. 2015. Web. 14 Jun. 2015
This slideshare gives a demonstration of the writing process that students can use in the college classroom. This is a simple three step process that involves: planning, drafting and revising. Developing as an academic writer does not have to be a difficult task. Follow the three steps, and you will be on your way to improving or enhancing your writing skills.
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Week 3 - Instructor Guidance
Week 3: Inductive Reasoning
This week’s guidance will cover the following topics:
1. The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
2. Appeals to Authority
3. Inductive Generalizations
4. Statistical Syllogisms
5. Arguments from Analogy
6. Inferences to the Best Explanation
7. Causal Reasoning
8. Things to Do This Week
The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
Will the sun rise tomorrow morning? Of course it will, but how do you know? The reasoning seems to go as follows:
Premise 1: The sun has risen every morning throughout known history
Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow
Deductively, this argument is invalid, for it is logically possible that the earth could stop spinning tonight. Does that mean that the argument is no good? Of course not. In fact, its premise makes the conclusion is virtually certain. This is an example of a very good argument that is not intended to be deductively valid. That is because it is actually an inductive argument.
An argument is inductive if it does not attempt to be valid, but intends to give strong evidence for the truth of its conclusion.
Many might see inductive reasoning as inferior to deductive reasoning, but that is not generally the case. In fact, inductive arguments often provide much better arguments for the truths of their conclusions than deductive ones. The deductively valid version of our argument about the sun, for example, goes:
Premise 1: The sun will always rise in the morning
Conclusion: Therefore the sun will rise tomorrow morning
This second argument, while valid, actually gives less evidence for the conclusion because its second premise is false (the sun will eventually expand to engulf the earth and then collapse). Therefore the deductive argument is unsound and so offers little evidence for the conclusion, whereas the original inductive argument made the conclusion virtually certain. In other words, inductive reasoning in general can be even better than deductive reasoning in many cases; the trick is to determine which inductive arguments are good and which ones are not so good.Strength versus Weakness
Just as it is the goal of deductive reasoning to be valid, it is the goal of a inductive reasoning to be
strong
. An inductive argument is strong in case its premises, if true, would make the conclusion very likely to be true as well. The above argument about the sun rising is very strong. Most inductive arguments are less strong, all the way along a spectrum between strength and weakness. Here are three with varying degrees of inductive strength:
Weak:
Premise 1: John is tall and in college.
Conclusion: Therefore, he probably plays on the basketball team.
Moderate:
Premise 1: The Lions are a 14 point favorite.
Conclusion: So they will probably win.
Strong:
Premise 1: All of the TV meteorologists report a 99% chance of rain tomorrow.
Conclusion: So it will probably rain tomorrow.
Note that the degree of strength of an inductive argument is independent of whether the.
Deductive Argument
For a deductive argument, if all its premises are true, its conclusion is necessarily true (or it is logically impossible for the conclusion to be false.)
I.e., the truth of premises guarantees the truth of conclusion.
Example
Either you work hard or you will fail the test.
You do not work hard.
Therefore, you will fail the test.
3 Types of Possibility
Technological possibility:
e.g.
Going to the moon is technological possible, but going to Mercury is not.
Physical possibility:
e.g.
Going to Mercury is physical possible, but making water boil at 95 C under one atmospheric pressure is not.
Logical possibility:
e.g.
Making water boil at 95 C under one atmospheric pressure is logical possible, but drawing a triangle with 4 angles is not.
When we talk about deductive arguments, we have already presupposed that the arguments are successful or valid deductive arguments.
The conclusion of a valid argument is called a valid conclusion.
For an unsuccessful deductive argument (the premises are intended to guarantee the conclusion but fail to do so), we call it an invalid argument.
A deductive argument may be valid or invalid, there is nothing in between.
Whether a deductive argument is valid or invalid depends on its form or structure, not on its content.
The above argument is valid because it has this valid form:
p or q.
Not-p.
Therefore, q.
p and q are statement variables.
A valid argument may have false conclusion if it has false premises.
Example:
CY Leung is either a genius or an idiot.
He is not an idiot.
Therefore, He is a genius.
In order to guarantee the truth of conclusion, we have to make sure all the premises are true.
When all the premises of a valid argument are true, the argument is called a “sound argument”.
And the conclusion of a sound argument is called a sound conclusion.
If an argument is invalid or has false premises, it is unsound.
On the other hand, the fact that an argument is invalid does not entail that its conclusion is false.
• It just means that its conclusion does not follow from its premises.
• You can consider a valid argument structure as a truth-keeping machine:
• When you input T information into it, it will output T information.
• When you input F information into it, it will output T or F information
Inductive Argument:
A typical example of inductive argument:
Swan1 is white.
Swan2 is white.
Swan3 is white.
…
Swann is white.
________________
All swans are white.
Another typical example:
An event of type B follows an event of type A at time t1.
An event of type B follows an event of type A at time t2.
…
An event of type B follows an event of type A at time tn.
___________________________
A causes B.
Many people think that the characteristic of inductive arguments is arguing from particular to general.
However, deductive arguments may also argue from particular to general.
Example:
I have two cats, Fluffy and Garfield.
Fluffy does not eat fish.
Garfield does not eat fish either.
Therefore, All of m
Abu logmanMay 20, 2013Quality assuranceTour The to.docxannetnash8266
Abu logman
May 20, 2013
Quality assurance
Tour
The tour to Haakon industries was a very interesting and an eye opener to what goes one in manufacturing company. We were all given a pair of safety glasses and a earplugs so that we can take the tour. The reason that we are not aloud to go in there with out safety glasses and earplugs is because they have to fallow a safety procedure. We started the tour at the front entrance. At the entrance I seen things that I was familiar with like people welding but it was on bigger pieces of metals. On thing that the tour guide made clear is that they have a very good QA process. They showed us the different things that they do in there company. First area that was shown was is were they examine their products, which they make sure every thing meets the proper QA guidelines. The place was very organized everybody had a job to do and they knew how to do it. Next we walked over to the welding area and it wasn’t like the regular welding I was used to. It was bigger peaces of metal. What impressed me was the organization of the place even though it seemed like they were doing a dirty job the place around them was clean. Then we walked over to the next area, which was a storage are and a place were they cut metal to the right size. They tour guide explained to us how important it was to have the right size metal, and they also mentioned that there was a QA report for that specific area. Then we walked to the assembly area. There was a lot more people in this area. Some people were cleaning the parts, others were welding but the parts were smaller. The others were rapping the product up, and getting it read for painting. Then we walked in to the painting area and it was very big. The tour guides were telling us that they had a QA sheet that they have to fill out in that area also. He gave us a scenario that there company went through. They had a moment were they were painting and every thing was painted good on the part but the bottom of the piece was not painted all the was. He said that with the QA sheets they fill out helped them see that this was an ongoing occurrence and they needed to solve this problem. It being an on going occurrence they were forced to find a solution. Then we walked to the final area were everything is checked to see if any thing seems out of the ordinary and that everything is suppose to work the way it is meant to. After they rap it up and get the heating and cooling system ready for shipping. All of us were amazed that the product they made was bigger and it surprised us when he told us that the there other projects they had bigger products they had to make. All and all the I enjoyed the tour.
LWA-Dann Tardif/Photolibrary3
The Theory of Knowledge
• Philosophy can help us become more aware of the differ-
ence between claiming to know something and showing
that we know something.
• Skepticism poses a threat to many of our knowledge
claims, and we have an obligation t.
Is online education an effective replacement for traditional classroom teaching?Dam Frank
The proliferation of information and communication technology (ICT) has created significant advancements in the way both teaching and learning take place. Among these advancements is the emergence of online learning, also known as e-learning, which is defined as the distribution of learning materials and resources online via the use of information and communication technology to facilitate the learning experience (Chitra & Raj, 2018, p. 2).
Lesson 7: The Seven Woes Against the Scribes and PhariseesDam Frank
The word “woe” is a translation of the Greek word ouai ” which is an
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Lesson 6 : Jewish Sects at the Time of ChristDam Frank
A sect is a name given to a group of people who break away from a larger, established religious denomination because of a set of beliefs that differ in some key ways.
Many views and practices of a sect will overlap with those of the larger group, other beliefs will be distinct enough to warrant a schism or division between
the groups.
This bible lesson discusses Jesus Christ being our substitute using bible illustrations such as: Isaac's substitute ram, the scapegoat of Leviticus 16 and the substitution for Barabbas
The term Progressive revelation states that God reveals His will and the mystery of Himself to humanity throughout stages in time. Therefore, the progressive revelation of the name refers to the various names God use to express the revelation of Himself throughout history.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Basic Civil Engineering Notes of Chapter-6, Topic- Ecosystem, Biodiversity Green house effect & Hydrological cycle
Types of Ecosystem
(1) Natural Ecosystem
(2) Artificial Ecosystem
component of ecosystem
Biotic Components
Abiotic Components
Producers
Consumers
Decomposers
Functions of Ecosystem
Types of Biodiversity
Genetic Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity
Ecological Biodiversity
Importance of Biodiversity
Hydrological Cycle
Green House Effect
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
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Solid waste management & Types of Basic civil Engineering notes by DJ Sir.pptxDenish Jangid
Solid waste management & Types of Basic civil Engineering notes by DJ Sir
Types of SWM
Liquid wastes
Gaseous wastes
Solid wastes.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE:
Based on their sources of origin
Based on physical nature
SYSTEMS FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
METHODS FOR DISPOSAL OF THE SOLID WASTE:
OPEN DUMPS:
LANDFILLS:
Sanitary landfills
COMPOSTING
Different stages of composting
VERMICOMPOSTING:
Vermicomposting process:
Encapsulation:
Incineration
MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTE:
Refuse
Reuse
Recycle
Reduce
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
2. Logic and Reasoning
Logic – The science of correct reasoning.
Reasoning – The drawing of inferences or
conclusions from known or assumed facts.
3. Two basic categories of human reasoning
Deduction: reasoning from general premises,
which are known or presumed to be known, to more
specific, certain conclusions.
Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more
general, but uncertain, conclusions.
Both deductive and inductive arguments occur
frequently and naturally…both forms of reasoning can
be equally compelling and persuasive, and neither form
is preferred over the other (Hollihan & Baske, 1994).
4. Deductive Reasoning Example:
When it rains, John’s old car won’t start. It’s
raining. Therefore, John’s old car won’t start.
(Applies a broad generalization to a specific case.)
Inductive Reasoning Example:
John’s old car won’t start. It’s raining. Therefore,
John’s old car won’t start when it’s raining.
(Uses a specific case to reach a broad generalization.)
5. To better visualize the difference between deductive and
inductive reasoning imagine each as a triangle. The deductive
pyramid is upside down, while the inductive pyramid is right
side up:
Broad
Generalization
To specific
Deductive Reasoning
7. Inductive Reasoning:
When detectives arrive at the scene of a crime, the
first thing they do is look for clues that can help them
piece together what happened. A broken window, for
example, might suggest how a burglar entered or exited.
Likewise, the fact that an intruder didn't disturb
anything but a painting that hid a safe might suggest
that the burglar knew exactly where the safe was
hidden. And this, in turn, suggests that the burglar knew
the victim.
The process described above is called inductive
reasoning. It consists of making observations and then
drawing conclusions based on those observations.
8. • Like a detective, you use inductive reasoning all
the time in your daily life.
• You might notice, for example, that every time
you eat a hot dog with chili and onions, you get a
stomachache.
• Using inductive reasoning, you could logically
conclude that the chili dogs cause indigestion,
and that you should probably stop eating them.
• Similarly, you might notice that your cat tries to
scratch you every time you rub her stomach.
9. • In both examples, what you're doing is moving
from the specific—a particular observation—to
the general—a larger conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning starts from observation and
evidence and leads to a conclusion.
10. Using inductive reasoning generally
involves the following questions:
1. What have you observed? What evidence is
available?
2. What can you conclude from that evidence?
3. Is that conclusion logical?
11. In deductive reasoning, on the other hand,
we start with the conclusion and then see if the
evidence for that conclusion is valid. Generally, if
the evidence is valid, the conclusion it supports is
valid as well. In other words, deductive reasoning
involves asking:
1. What is the conclusion?
2. What evidence supports it?
3. Is that evidence logical?
If you can answer yes to question 3, then the
conclusion should be logical and the argument
sound.
12. Deductive Reasoning
1. All students eat pizza.
Claire is a student at ASU.
Therefore, Claire eats pizza.
2. All athletes work out in the gym.
Barry Bonds is an athlete.
Therefore, Barry Bonds works out in the gym.
3. All math teachers are over 7 feet tall.
Mr. D. is a math teacher.
Therefore, Mr. D is over 7 feet tall.
13. Deductive Reasoning
The argument is valid, but is certainly not true.
The above examples are of the form
If p, then q. (major premise)
x is p. (minor premise)
Therefore, x is q. (conclusion)
14. Deductive Versus
Inductive Reasoning
Deduction
It is the form or structure of a
deductive argument that
determines its validity
the fundamental property of a
valid, deductive argument is
that if the premises are true,
then the conclusion necessarily
follows.
The conclusion is said to be
“entailed” in, or contained in, the
premises.
example: use of DNA testing
to establish paternity
Induction
By contrast, the form or structure
of an inductive argument has little
to do with its perceived
believability or credibility, apart
from making the argument seem
more clear or more well-
organized.
The receiver (or a 3rd party)
determines the worth of an
inductive argument
15. Deduction Versus Induction
--still more
Deductive reasoning is
commonly found in the natural
sciences or “hard” sciences,
less so in everyday arguments
Occasionally, everyday
arguments do involve
deductive reasoning:
Example: “Two or more persons are
required to drive in the diamond lane.
You don’t have two or more persons.
Therefore you may not drive in the
diamond lane”
Inductive reasoning is
found in the courtroom,
the boardroom, the
classroom, and
throughout the media
Most, but not all everyday
arguments are based on
induction
Examples: The “reasonable
person” standard in civil law,
and the “beyond a reasonable
doubt” standard in criminal law
16. Inductive or deductive reasoning?
A sample of fifty motorists
who were stopped by the
CHP at a sobriety
checkpoint on a Saturday
at midnight revealed that
one in four drivers were
either uninsured,
intoxicated, or both.
Thus, if you get involved
in an accident on the
freeway there is a 25%
chance the other motorist
will be drunk or
uninsured.
The Law of the Sea treaty
states that any vessel
beyond a 12 mile limit is in
international waters. The
treaty also states that any
vessel in international
waters cannot be legally
stopped or boarded.
Therefore, when the U.S.
Coast Guard intercepts
boats coming from Cuba
or Haiti more than 12
miles from the U.S. coast,
it is violating the Law of
the Sea.
17. Sample Deductive and Inductive Arguments
Example of
Deduction
major premise: All
tortoises are
vegetarians
minor premise:
Bessie is a tortoise
conclusion:
Therefore, Bessie
is a vegetarian
Example of
Induction
Boss to employee:
“John has a tattoo
of an anchor on his
arm. He probably
served in the
Navy.”
22. Inductive Reasoning
All known planets
travel about the sun in
ellipitical orbits;
therefore all planets
travel about the sun in
ellipitical orbits.
25. Deductive or Inductive?
Exploration of the
surface of Mars has
produced some
surprising facts.
Therefore exploration
of the surface of Jupiter
will produce some
surprising facts.
31. Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantage of deductive reasoning is the truths that it
establishes are absolute
Disadvantage of deductive reasoning is that must
have some truths in hand before starting
32. Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantage with inductive reasoning can start with
nothing, make some observations, reach
conclusions
Disadvantage is the conclusions are tentative
33. It's easy to confuse inductive and
deductive reasoning, so here's something to help
you remember which is which:
Inductive: Evidence · Conclusion (IEC)
Deductive: Conclusion · Evidence (DCE)