1. The document discusses the anatomical organization and functional roles of different areas of the cerebral cortex, including sensory processing, motor control, and association areas. 2. It specifically focuses on Brodmann's mapping of the human cortex, which identified 47 distinct regions based on cytoarchitecture. 3. The prefrontal cortex is highlighted as the area that gives humans capacities for empathy, understanding humor, and regulating social behavior.

1. Director
Function

2. Stretch Reflex

3. Withdrawal and Crossed Extensor Reflex

4. Locomotion

5. Autonomic Regulation of Cardiovascular Function

6. Emotional Circuit

7. Evolution of Brain

9. Anatomical organization of Cerebrum

10. Grey Matters

11. The Association Cortices

12. Cortical Architecture

13. Intracortical circuits

14. Cortical Lamination

15. Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic mapping of the human brain

17. Broadman's # NAME FUNCTION
17 Occipital Lobe Visual Projection Cortex
18 Visual Association Cortex
19 Posterior Parietal Lobe Visual Association Cortex
37 Tempero-parietal-occipital area General Sensory Association Cortex
39 Angular Gyrus Word Recognition
40 Supramarginal Lobe Somatosensory Association Cortex
1,2,3 Postcentral Gyrus Somatosensory Projection Cortex
5, 7 Superior Parietal Lobule General Sensory Association Cortex
Middle 1/3 of Superior Temporal
41, 42 Auditory Projection Cortex
Cortex
22 Superior Temporal Gyrus Auditory Association Cortex
21, 20, 38 Inferior Temporal Cortex General Sensory Association Cortex
4 Precentral Gyrus Primary Motor Cortex
1,2,3 Postcentral Gyrus Somatosensory Projection Cortex
6,8,9 Premotor Cortex Motor Association Cortex
Middle 1/3 of Superior Temporal
41, 42 Auditory Projection Cortex
Cortex
Motor Association Cortex - Specific to
44,45,46 Broca's Area
speech
10 Preftontal Cortex General Motor Association Cortex
11 Orbital Gyri General Motor Association Cortex

18. Input-output relationships of cortex.

19. Cerebral Cortex and Thalamus

20. Noradrenergic neurons in the pons
Important for focused attention

21. Dopaminergic neurons in the brain stem and hypothalamus
Dopamine in the caudate nucleus facilitates posture, whereas dopamine in the nucleus accumbens is
associated with an animal's speed (and pleasure).

22. Serotonergic Cell Groups
Serotonin seems to have distinctive actions contributing to anxiety
and impulsive behavior.
Patients with evidence of low serotonin levels have attempted suicide
by very dramatic means, such as cutting the throat

23. Cholinergic Cell Groups (wake sleep cycle)

24. Sensory Pathway

25. Visual Pathway

26. Auditory Pathway

27. Taste Pathway

29. Corticospinal tract

30. Cerebral Cortex: Functional Organization

31. Association cortices

32. Pathways to the somatosensory, visual, and auditory association areas

33. Unimodal sensory inputs converge on multimodal association areas

34. The Sequence of Information Processing Is Reversed in the Motor System

35. Sensory Motor Association Cortex

36. Frontal Lobe is an “Essence of Human being”
Gives our capacity to feel empathy, sympathy, understand humor and
when others are being ironic, sarcastic or even deceptive.

37. Evolution of Human Frontal Lobe
The high, straight forehead that characterizes modern humans,
superceding the prominent brow ridges of our ancestors, is due to the
expansion of the cortex, and especially the prefrontal cortex, in our species.
1. Australopithecus robustus 2. Homo habilis 3. Homo erectus
4. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis 5. Homo sapiens sapiens

38. Phinease Gage (1848)
1. He becomes unreliable and fails to
come to work and when present
On 13th Sept 1848 a railroad he is "lazy."
2. He has no interest in going to
worker hard working, church, constantly drinks alcohol,
diligent, reliable, responsible, gambles, and "whores about."
3. He is accused of sexually molesting
intelligent, good humored, young children.
polite god fearing, family 4. He ignores his wife and children
and fails to meet his financial and
oriented foreman family obligations.
5. He has lost his sense of humour.
Following an explosion iron bar
6. He curses constantly and does so
drove into frontal lobe in inappropriate circumstances.
7. Died of status epilepticus in 1861

39. Frontal Lobe ablation in Monkey and Dogs (Bianchi)
"The frontal lobes are the seat of coordination and fusion of the incoming
and outgoing products of the several sensory and motor areas of the
cortex" (Bianchi, 1895)
• Loss of "perceptive power", leading to defective attention and object
recognition.
• Reduction in memory.
• Reduction in "associative power", leading to lack of coordination of the
individual steps leading towards a given goal, and thus to severe
difficulty solving anything but the most simple problem.
• Altered emotional attachments, leading to serious changes in "sociality"
[one of the main aspects of Phineas Gage's post-traumatic behaviour].
• Disruption of focal consciousness and purposive behaviour, leading to
apathy and/or distractibility [one of the main aspects of Becky's post-
operative behaviour].
Bianchi 1922

40. History
Dandy’s (1936) Jacobson (1935)
– following bilateral frontal – Premotor lobotomy in
lobotomy during removal of
primates ->
meningioma
– Social indifference
Feuchtwanger (1923)
– Tameness
200 case of frontal lobe injury
– Lack of initiative – Placidity
– Vacillation – Forgetfulness
– Euphoria – Difficulty in problem solving
– Inattentiveness
– Normal intellect and memory Egas Moniz 1935
– Prefrontal lobotomies in
psychotics

41. Inferiomesial Frontal leukotomy
Egas Moniz 1935
Hours
Weeks to months
– Drowsy
– Apathetic – Regained memory and
– Incontinent intellect
– Akinetic – With personality changes
– Mute – Indifferent to the others
Days problem
– Decreased initiative
– No thought to their conduct
– Lack of concern
– Freedom from anxiety – Tactless
– Apathetic – Distractible
– Socially inept
– Euphoria and emotional
outburst

42. Frontal lobe and Psychiatry
Schizophrenia :
– Involving dorsolateral Personality disorder: Antisocial
prefrontal cortex
Personality disorder with impulsivity of
– affective changes, impaired
motivation, poor insight. and frontal lobe
other "defect symptoms Attention deficit syndrome with
– Evidence : Neuropathologic distractibility of frontal lobe
studies, (23) in EEG studies,
(24) in radiological studies
using CT measures, (25) with
MRI, (26) and in cerebral
blood flow (CBF) studies.

43. Attention skills
Selective attention: the ability to efficiently 'filter' information; to detect
information that is relevant and ignore irrelevant or distracting
information.
Sustained attention: the ability to actively attend to a task, goal, or own
behavior despite there being little stimulation for such continued
processing.
Divided attention: the ability to monitor or attend to two things at once.
Shifting attention: the ability to shift attention between two or more
tasks.

44. Thinking skills
Organization: the ability to arrange or place things in a meaningful
system.
Planning: the ability to create a 'blueprint' or strategy for reaching goals
or completing a task.
Time management: the ability to effectively estimate how much time one
has, how to spend that time, and how to stay within time limits and meet
deadlines.
Working memory: the ability to hold information in immediate awareness
while performing a mental operation on that information.
Metacognition: the ability to think about one's own thoughts, behaviors,
and feelings in a given situation. It involves being able to self-monitor or
evaluate one's skills.

45. Monitoring skills
Response inhibition: the ability to think before acting. Doing so, gives
one the time to evaluate a situation and determine how one's behavior
might affect it.
Self-regulation of affect: the ability to manage emotions in order to
achieve goals, complete tasks, or control and direct behavior.
Task initiation: the ability to start a task without procrastinating.
Flexibility: the ability to revise plans or directed behavior when there are
obstacles, setbacks, new information, or mistakes; adapting to
environmental changes.
Goal-directed persistence: the ability to self-motivate and see things
through to completion or reaching of a goal.

46. Prefrontal cortex
~ 1/3 of cortical surface
Most recently evolved
Well developed only in primates
– the advent of the human
species: "age of the frontal
lobe"
develops late in ontogeny
– differentiation through age 1
– maturation through age 6

47. Connectivity of Prefrontal regions
Input from association cortex
(occipital, parietal, temporal &
olfactory areas)
convergence of higher-order
input from all modalities.
Reciprocal connections:
prefrontal processing modulates
perceptual processing.
LIMBIC connections
(memory/emotion)
Input to premotor areas -
controls/programs behavior.

48. Premotor & Motor Areas
Premotor areas (6) - input from
prefrontal regions and parietal
association areas (5,7).
Area 4: primary motor cortex
– input from premotor area (6)
and area 44
– sends output to spinal cord,
and other motor structures
(basal ganglia)
Frontal network controls voluntary,
planned actions.

49. “Planning Neurons” in the Monkey Frontal Cortex

50. Neuron Firing in the Principal Sulcus track the working Memory

51. Working Memory

52. Imaging of Working Memory

53. Interaction Among Association Areas

54. Beyond Motor Planning
Frontal lobe has evolved from being the main motor planner/organizer
to a higher level behavioral/strategic planner/organizer.
Mental model, considering options, selecting behaviors based on
context, feedback, stored knowledge
Making predictions about what will work.

55. Impaired divergent thinking
Decreased consideration of alternative strategies/ behaviors; reduced
flexibility
Decreased spontaneity, initiative, may appear lazy, unmotivated
Knowledge/intelligence may seem intact (e.g. IQ) but its not used to
generate strategies or solve problems efficiently

56. Decreased Inhibition
Problems inhibiting incorrect/ineffective responses & switching to a
new strategy
Perseverates; not responsive to feedback or changes in environment
Violates rules, expectancies; takes risks
Not adaptable
Decreased social inhibitons as well

57. Impaired association learning
Reduced response to consequences
Impaired on delayed response tasks
Impaired responsiveness to social & contextual cues

58. Impaired temporal learning
Impaired memory for order
Could affect problem-solving, planning and impair systematic,
organized behaviours

59. Personality and emotional changes
Apathetic, indifferent, loss of initiative, lack of emotion or somewhat
depressed, little verbal output. Most common after left frontal damage;
called "pseudodepression"
Lack of tact & restraint, immature, coarse,lack of social graces,
inappropriate sexual behavior, increased motor activity. More
common after right frontal damage; called "pseudopsychopathic"

60. Memory defect
Part of more general disturbance in thinking
Can recall the details of problem, error in trying to solve
Could not put them to use in the correction of further
performance.
Cannot categorizes series of item in group for recall

61. Frontal lobe and arousal
Right frontal lobe exerts bilateral influences on arousal
The right frontal lobe is also larger than the left suggesting a greater
degree of interconnections with other brain tissue, and it appears to
exert bilateral inhibitory influences on attention and arousal
However, because the right frontal lobe appears to exert bilateral
inhibitory influences, whereas the influences of the left are unilateral
and excitatory, when the left frontal region is damaged, the right may
act unopposed and there may be excessive left cerebral inhibition or
reduced activity

62. Personality and behavior
Lack of initiative and spontaneity
Placidity: worry, anxiety, self concern, hypochondriasis, and pain
reduces
Psychomotor retardation: number of movements, spoken words and
thought per unit of time diminish. Mild form abulia and severe akinetic
mutism.
Organic driveness: brief but intense meaningless activity.
Loss of ego strength: Witzelsucht or moria : socially uninhibited and
lack aunawerness of their abnormal behavior.
Loss of regards to social conventions , only interested in personal
gratification.

63. Disinhibited sexuality
It is not unusual for a hypersexual, disinhibited frontal lobe injured
individual to employ force.
Seizure activity arising from the deep frontal regions have also been
associated with increased sexual behaviour, including sexual
automatisms, exhibitionism, genital manipulation, and masturbation

64. Summary Frontal lobe function
Motor Cognitive Behavior Arousal
Voluntary Memory Personality Attention
movements
Language Problem solving Social and sexual
Expression
Eye movements Judgment Impulse control
Initiation Abstract Mood and affect
thinking
Spontaneity