please help in microprocessor course (NO handwriting) What is multi-core processing? How
does it help in improving computer performance? Write about the different levels of integrated
circuit technologies (such as SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, etc.). Give examples of each. Write a
detailed report on Intel\'s IC fabrication technology with the help of pictures and diagrams. What
is the latest technology Intel is working on for chip making?
Solution
8)A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual
processing units (called \"cores\"), which are the units that read and execute program
instructions.
Multi-core processors offer developers the ability to apply more computer resources to a
particular problem. These additional resources can be employed to offer two types of advantages,
improved turnaround time or increasing throughput. An improved turnaround time example is
the processing of a transaction in a point-of-sales (POS) system. The time it takes to process a
transaction may be improved by taking advantage of multi-core processors. While one processor
core is updating the terminal display, another processor core could be tasked with processing the
user input. Increase in throughput can occur in the servers that handle back-end processing of the
transactions arriving from the various POS terminals. By taking advantage of multi-core
processors, any one server could handle a greater number of transactions in the desired response
time. Balancing both improved turnaround time and increased throughput is power utilization. A
power budget may be specified for the individual system used on the client end or the collection
of back-end servers. The additional performance may lead to space, power, and cooling cost
savings as fewer systems would be required to meet a specific level of demand.
9) Small Scale Integration (SSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip
is up to 100 and they include basic gates and flip flops.
Examples:The 7400 TTL series.
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip
is from 100 to 1000 and they include logic functions such as Encoders, Decoders, Counters,
Registers, Multiplexers and small memories etc.
Examples:multiplexer,Decoder.
Large Scale Integration (LSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip is
from 1000 to 20,000 and they include memories.
Examples:CPU
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC
chip is from 20,000 to 10,00,000.
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC
chip is from 10,00,000 to 1,00,00,000.
10)IC Fabrication Technology – Doping, Oxidation, Thin-film deposition, Lithography, Etch,
Lithography trends, Plasma processing, Chemical mechanical polishing
Integrated Circuit Fabrication: Mass fabrication (i.e. simultaneous fabrication) of many “chips”,
each a circuit .
please help in microprocessor course (NO handwriting) What is multi-.pdf
1. please help in microprocessor course (NO handwriting) What is multi-core processing? How
does it help in improving computer performance? Write about the different levels of integrated
circuit technologies (such as SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, etc.). Give examples of each. Write a
detailed report on Intel's IC fabrication technology with the help of pictures and diagrams. What
is the latest technology Intel is working on for chip making?
Solution
8)A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual
processing units (called "cores"), which are the units that read and execute program
instructions.
Multi-core processors offer developers the ability to apply more computer resources to a
particular problem. These additional resources can be employed to offer two types of advantages,
improved turnaround time or increasing throughput. An improved turnaround time example is
the processing of a transaction in a point-of-sales (POS) system. The time it takes to process a
transaction may be improved by taking advantage of multi-core processors. While one processor
core is updating the terminal display, another processor core could be tasked with processing the
user input. Increase in throughput can occur in the servers that handle back-end processing of the
transactions arriving from the various POS terminals. By taking advantage of multi-core
processors, any one server could handle a greater number of transactions in the desired response
time. Balancing both improved turnaround time and increased throughput is power utilization. A
power budget may be specified for the individual system used on the client end or the collection
of back-end servers. The additional performance may lead to space, power, and cooling cost
savings as fewer systems would be required to meet a specific level of demand.
9) Small Scale Integration (SSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip
is up to 100 and they include basic gates and flip flops.
Examples:The 7400 TTL series.
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip
is from 100 to 1000 and they include logic functions such as Encoders, Decoders, Counters,
Registers, Multiplexers and small memories etc.
Examples:multiplexer,Decoder.
Large Scale Integration (LSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip is
from 1000 to 20,000 and they include memories.
Examples:CPU
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC
2. chip is from 20,000 to 10,00,000.
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC
chip is from 10,00,000 to 1,00,00,000.
10)IC Fabrication Technology – Doping, Oxidation, Thin-film deposition, Lithography, Etch,
Lithography trends, Plasma processing, Chemical mechanical polishing
Integrated Circuit Fabrication: Mass fabrication (i.e. simultaneous fabrication) of many “chips”,
each a circuit (e.g. a microprocessor or memory chip) containing millions or billions of
transistors.
Method: Lay down thin films of semiconductors, metals and insulators and pattern each layer
with a process much like printing (lithography).
Si Substrates (Wafers) Crystals are grown from a melt in boules (cylinders) with specified
dopant concentrations. They are ground perfectly round and oriented (a “flat” or “notch” is
ground along the boule) and then sliced like baloney into wafers. The wafers are then polished.
Adding Dopants into Si: Suppose we have a wafer of Si which is p-type and we want to change
the surface to n-type. The way in which this is done is by ion implantation. Dopant ions are shot
out of an “ion gun” called an ion implanter, into the surface of the wafer.
Typical implant energies are in the range (1-200)keV. After the ion implantation, the wafers are
heated to a high temperature (~1000oC). This “annealing” step heals the damage and causes the
implanted dopant atoms to move into substitution lattice sites.
Dopant Diffusion: The implanted depth-profile of dopant atoms is peaked. In order to achieve a
more uniform dopant profile, high temperature annealing is used to diffuse the dopants. Dopants
can also be directly introduced into the surface of a wafer by diffusion (rather than by ion
implantation) from a dopant-containing ambient or doped solid source.
Formation of Insulating Films: The insulator is pure silicon dioxide (SiO2).
A SiO2 film can be formed by one of two methods:
1. Oxidation of Si at high temperature in O2 or steam ambient,
2. Deposition of a silicon dioxide film
Thermal Oxidation:
[Si + O2 SiO2(“dry” oxidation)]or
[Si+2H2OSiO2 +2H2(“wet” oxidation)]
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) of Si: Polycrystalline silicon Like SiO2 , Si can be
deposited by Chemical Vapour Deposition:
• Wafer is heated to 600C
• Silicon-containing gas is injected into the furnace: SiH4 = Si + 2H2
Physical Vapour Deposition (“Sputtering”): Used to deposit Al films: Highly energetic argon
ions batter the surface of a metal target, knocking atoms loose, which then land on the surface of
3. the wafer.
Lithography refers to the process of transferring a pattern to the surface of the wafer.
Equipment, materials, and processes needed: A mask (for each layer to be patterned) with the
desired pattern.
A lightsensitive material (called photoresist) covering the wafer so as to receive the pattern. A
light source and method of projecting the image of the mask onto the photoresist.
A method of “developing” the photoresist,that is selectively removing it from the regions where
it was exposed.
Photoresist Exposure: A glass mask with a black/clear pattern is used to expose a wafer coated
with ~1 µm thick photoresist.
Photoresist Development:
![chip is from 20,000 to 10,00,000.
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC
chip is from 10,00,000 to 1,00,00,000.
10)IC Fabrication Technology – Doping, Oxidation, Thin-film deposition, Lithography, Etch,
Lithography trends, Plasma processing, Chemical mechanical polishing
Integrated Circuit Fabrication: Mass fabrication (i.e. simultaneous fabrication) of many “chips”,
each a circuit (e.g. a microprocessor or memory chip) containing millions or billions of
transistors.
Method: Lay down thin films of semiconductors, metals and insulators and pattern each layer
with a process much like printing (lithography).
Si Substrates (Wafers) Crystals are grown from a melt in boules (cylinders) with specified
dopant concentrations. They are ground perfectly round and oriented (a “flat” or “notch” is
ground along the boule) and then sliced like baloney into wafers. The wafers are then polished.
Adding Dopants into Si: Suppose we have a wafer of Si which is p-type and we want to change
the surface to n-type. The way in which this is done is by ion implantation. Dopant ions are shot
out of an “ion gun” called an ion implanter, into the surface of the wafer.
Typical implant energies are in the range (1-200)keV. After the ion implantation, the wafers are
heated to a high temperature (~1000oC). This “annealing” step heals the damage and causes the
implanted dopant atoms to move into substitution lattice sites.
Dopant Diffusion: The implanted depth-profile of dopant atoms is peaked. In order to achieve a
more uniform dopant profile, high temperature annealing is used to diffuse the dopants. Dopants
can also be directly introduced into the surface of a wafer by diffusion (rather than by ion
implantation) from a dopant-containing ambient or doped solid source.
Formation of Insulating Films: The insulator is pure silicon dioxide (SiO2).
A SiO2 film can be formed by one of two methods:
1. Oxidation of Si at high temperature in O2 or steam ambient,
2. Deposition of a silicon dioxide film
Thermal Oxidation:
[Si + O2 SiO2(“dry” oxidation)]or
[Si+2H2OSiO2 +2H2(“wet” oxidation)]
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) of Si: Polycrystalline silicon Like SiO2 , Si can be
deposited by Chemical Vapour Deposition:
• Wafer is heated to 600C
• Silicon-containing gas is injected into the furnace: SiH4 = Si + 2H2
Physical Vapour Deposition (“Sputtering”): Used to deposit Al films: Highly energetic argon
ions batter the surface of a metal target, knocking atoms loose, which then land on the surface of](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)