XRD Proposal

Submitted:March22, 2016
TIR Solar Energy, Inc.
XRD Proposal
XRD: Looking Deeper into Quality Control
and Characterization of Our Products
Chris Dowdy
Lead,QualityControl Systems
ChrisDowdy0257@FLPoly.org
Overview
TIR Solar Energy has of late dealt with a large
increaseof defective solarcells.Of particular
note is last year’s six month delay of the
South Florida Solar Field Project in
Clewiston. The defects on this one project
alone cost the company over one half million
dollars.
As a response, the Quality Control
Department has been tasked with
determining the cause of these failures.
Eliminating them is an imperative. All
aspects of our photovoltaic cells were
examined and reexamined through on
location means and offsite contracted tests.
After this myriad of checks, the Quality
Control Department has come to a verdict.
The titanium dioxide (TiO2 or titania)
nanoparticles used in the solar cells are
often faulty.
In short, the crystalline structure of the
titania nanoparticles for the faulty solar cells
are in the wrong phase structure to produce
an electric current easily from photonic
energy. It appears that during annealing, the
phase of some of the titanium dioxide is
changing from the needed anatase phase to
the much less photon accepting rutile phase
[1]. This phase change drastically affects the
ability of the solar cell to produce electric
power and appears to be the root of the
failure problems [1, 2, 3].
In order to improve quality controls for this
problem in the production process, this
department is proposing the purchase of an
X-ray diffractometer (XRD) for regular
product testing. An XRD is an ideal
Executive Summary
The recent spike in solar cell failures experienced by TIR Solar Energy has been attributed to
inconsistent titanium dioxide particles used in solar cellproduction. To institute proper quality
controls of this material and to minimize further failures in the field, the purchase of an X-ray
diffractometer (XRD) has been proposed. In particular, Quality Control is suggesting the
purchase of a Rigaku MiniFlex600 Benchtop XRD Instrument and accessories for just under
$95,000.

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instrument for testing and determining the
crystal phase of a material. An XRD will be
able to determine the phase of the titania
TIR is producing and allow for the proper
adjustments as needed in the production
process.
An XRD employs X-rays to reflect off of each
atomic layer in a samplematerial [4, 5]. Since
the wavelength of an X-ray in in the
Ångstrom (Å, 10-10 meters) range, they can
penetrate substances into the deeper layers
of their atomic structure [4]. Through the
use of geometry and some computer
software, the intensity of the X-rays and
their angles of reflection can verify the
crystalline structure of a material. In
particular, powder X-ray diffraction analyzes
many small crystallites of a material (in TIR’s
case, micron sized particles and
nanoparticles) measures the intensity of the
X-ray diffraction as a function of the angle
the X-ray enters the sample [4, 5]. Routine
uses of this powder X-ray diffraction
technique will be critical in the quality
control process for TIR going forward.
What follows is a detailed explanation of
XRD metrology, physics and usage as it will
affect the processes and quality control at
TIR Solar Energy.
Instrument Metrology
Not long after the detection of X-rays by
Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895, the scientific
world began discovering novel ways to use
them [4, 5, 6]. Their very short wavelengths
enabled them to travel through different
media. And their high energy allowed them
to be recorded on photographic film. One
interesting application of these two
properties was discovered by Max von Laue
in 1912. He realized that the lattice network
of atoms inside a crystal could be used as a
diffraction grating for X-rays and these
diffraction patterns could be recorded on
photographic film [4, 5, 6]. However, von
Laue’s work was later given more thorough
meaning and usefulness by Lawrence Bragg.
He interpreted von Laue’s work to mean that
each plane of atoms in a crystal is another
surface from which the deep penetrating X-
rays could reflect [4, 5]. X-rays strike each
successive plane of atoms in a crystal,
diffracting firstoff the surfacelayer, then the
one below it, and so on. Bragg also
formulated that a strong signal from the X-
rays would be present if the rays reflecting
from all the surfaces were in phase [5].
From this physical phenomenon, Bragg
constructed what is today referred to as
Bragg’s Law:
nλ = 2dsinθ (1)
X-rays of wavelength λ reflect from different
surfaces in the lattice of a crystal (d =
distance between each surface). These X-
rays, entering the crystal at an angle (θ) will
diffract out of the crystal at the angle of 2θ.
Further, all of the X-rays exiting the material
will be in phase with constructive
interference if the extra distance that the
penetrating X-rays travel is a whole number
Figure 1. ElectromagneticSpectrum[7].
Figure 1.

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integer (n) times the wavelength (λ). Figure
2 is a diagram of what Bragg’s Law states.
The process starts with two known variables,
λ and θ. Further, by starting X-ray diffraction
at a small angle (θ ≤ 5°), n is not a whole
number and less than 1. The sampleis slowly
tilted to increase θ. When the diffracted X-
rays are first in phase and producing a strong
signal, n equals 1 and the distance between
the surfaces (d) in the lattice of the crystal
can be determined as the only unknown in
the Bragg’s Law formula. The ability to
determine the lattice spacing between the
vary atoms that constitute a crystal birthed
the modern science of crystallography [4].
In particular, Powder XRD runs the same test
over a sample that has been ground into a
fine powder (particles of > 10 μm). The
powder (about a tenth of a gram) is packed
onto the sample stage, ideally in many
different orientations. As the XRD scans the
sample powder, the fluctuations in X-ray
intensity are recorded and graphed as 2θ
versus intensity [4]. The resulting
diffractogram (the graph of intensity peaks)
is compared against broad databases of
known materials for sample and phase
identification [6]. One such database is run
by The International Centre for Diffraction
Data (http://www.icdd.com/index.htm).
For our purposes here at TIR, qualitative
phase analysis of titania particles will allow
differentiation between their phase and
efficacy for solar energy production. These
particles,in both nanoscaleand micron sized
aggregates, will be best examined using the
powder XRD method. Titania is a crystal that
has been well characterized and these
diffractograms are readily available.
There are, however, some unavoidable
errors or artifacts that can occur in XRD
analysis. Two particular artifacts are of note
for qualitative phase analysis of TiO2.
The first artifact is libration, or the subtle
circular motion of terminal atoms in a crystal
lattice network [8]. Libration, depending on
the motion of the atoms, can require
adjustments of 0.001 to 0.1 Å. The effects of
libration are pronounced at high
temperatures. Therefore, it is recommended
that our testing take place after chilling the
materials [8].
The second artifact in play for our purposes
is the background data from the sample
holder inside the XRD. This will be mitigated
by using a “zero-background holder.” Silicon
(510) oriented is used for this proposal.
A brief explanation of XRD hardware seems
appropriate at this time. The XRD produces
X-rays in a cathode tube. Inside the cathode
tube, a heated filament releases electrons
that accelerate rapidly toward the anode
(made from Cu in this proposal). The
electrons transmit as a result of a high
voltage difference between the cathode and
anode [4, 6]. As the transmitted electrons hit
Figure 2. Diagramof Bragg’s Law [4].
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Diagramof X-raycathode tube [4].

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the Cu atoms, some accelerated electrons
dislodge the Cu electrons from their lower
electron shells. As electrons from the outer
electron shells of Cu move down to fill these
holes and achieve more stability, energy is
released in the form of X-rays [4, 6].
These X-rays come in three wavelengths and
are characteristic for the anode material [4,
5, 6]. The unique wavelengths are labeled
Kα1, Kα2, and Kβ, based on from which
electron shell the “hole-filling” electron
originated. The wavelengths of Kα1 (1.54056
Å) and Kα2 (1.54439 Å) are very closeand the
difference will be considered negligible the
purposes of TIR. The wavelength of Kβ
(1.39222 Å) is filtered out by a nickel foil [4].
After leaving the X-ray cathode tube, the X-
ray beam, travels through soller slits and a
divergence slitto position the beam onto the
sample. The X-ray beam then diffracts off of
the sample and through more slits and a
filter before striking the X-ray detector [4, 9].
The XRD instrument in this proposal moves
the beam source and detector as a θ/θ rate
while scanning the sample. The software
connected to the XRD then interprets the
data from the detector and constructs a
diffractogram (a plot of 2θ vs. X-ray
intensity). This diffractogram is the signature
that helps identify the phase of the sample
based upon accepted reference samples [6,
9].
Due to the straightforward qualitative phase
analysis needs of TIR, no additional
accessories or software packages will be
needed.
TiO2 Specific Physics
For Quality Control purposes, titania
particles need to be characterized by their
crystalline phase, either anatase (desired
phase) or rutile (undesirable phase). As a
means of regular quality control, a sample of
titania nanoparticles will be removed from
each synthesized lot and dried. The dried,
aggregatednanoparticles willbe ground into
a powder and analyzed in the XRD. Figure 6
is a side by side of the normal diffractograms
for both anatase and rutile titania.
The rutile and anatasephases shareintensity
peaks at 2θ = 28°, 36°, 42°, 54°, 57°, and
minor peak pairs at 63°, 64° and 69°, 70°. The
Figure 4. Diagramof X-rayemissionfroman
atom [4].
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Diagramof the X-raybeam path
inside anXRD[4].
Figure 6. Plotof relative intensitypeaksfor
anatase and rutile TiO2 [10].
Figure 6.

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anatase phase has noticeably unique
intensity peaks at 2θ = 25°, 48°. The rutile
phase has a unique intensity peak at 2θ = 39°
[10]. The two phases have diffractograms
that are similar.However, enough difference
exists between them to use the XRD for
definitive quality control.
The difference is due to different planes in
the anatase crystal lattice compared to the
rutile. These different planes produce
different reflection intensity points in the
XRD scan. Anatase titania has a bravais
lattice structure of tetragonal I (body
centered) [11], while rutile titania has a
bravais lattice structure of tetragonal P
(body centered) [12].
The lattice structure of anatase has an atom
in the center of the unit cell and, therefore,
has more planes that can be formed inside
the lattice [4]. The increase in planes upon
which the X-rays can diffract is the reason
that anatase has more intensity peaks than
rutile in Figure 6. The increase in number of
lattice planes is also the reason the XRD can
characterize anatase versus rutile titania.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 are diagrams of the
atomic lattice of anatase titania and rutile
titania, respectively. White balls represent
titanium and red balls represent oxygen.
Understanding the lattice network of
anatase and rutile titania helps further
interpret the diffractograms in Figure 6. The
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Diagramof rutile andanatase
bravaislattice structures[4].
Rutile Anatase
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Diagramof the atomic lattice of
anatase titania[11].
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Diagramof the atomic lattice of
rutile titania[12].

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noticeably unique intensity peaks on the
anatase diffractogram are recorded as
A(101) and A(200) [10]. The ‘A’ refers to
anatase. However, the three numbers in
parentheses refer to the Miller indices [4]. In
the short, the Miller indices refer to ways a
unit cell of a crystal lattice can be divided
into different planes. The three numbers in a
Miller index should be thought of as
individual numbers, not a three digit
number. Each individual number refers to
how many times one axis of the unit cell is
divided in 3-D space. The first number refers
to the conventional x-axis, the second to the
y-axis and the third to the z-axis. (Note: x, y
and z, popularly known geometry terms, are
commonly referred to as a, b and c in
crystallography terms. [4]) Therefore, the
intensity peak at A(101) means the XRD
detected a diffraction from the plane
dividing the a axis and c axis of the of the
crystal lattice unit cell. Unfortunately, with
limited access to graphic software, this
proposal cannot illustrate the (101) plane.
However, the intensity peak at A(200) is
illustrated in Figure 10, bisecting the a axis.
This data means that the XRD detected
constructive X-ray interference as a result of
diffracting with this plane of atoms in the
crystal. For the quality control purposes of
TIR, since this plane of atoms does not exist
in the rutile phase, the existence of this
intensity peak would prove qualitatively that
the titania produced in this lot was in the
correct phase for our applications.
Thankfully, current XRD instruments come
equipped with software that rapidly
interpret these X-ray intensity peaks as
differing planes, saving researchers much
time and effort by comparing the scanned
results to standard reference data.
While this qualitative analysis for titania
appears straightforward, several issues can
arise in the process creating artifacts that
must be considered in the collected data.
First, the sample must be scanned at the
appropriate speed. Several publications
caution againstscanning samples too quickly
[4, 13], despite manufacturer claims of
“faster analysis” [14]. While state of the art
instruments are no doubt more efficient
than their predecessors, rushing through
scientific investigation has never been a
recipe for success. The second issue that can
arise with a fine powder sample is that the
sample can fall of the stage in some
diffractometers. In diffractometers where
the stage rotates at the angle θ and the
detector rotates at 2θ, spilling the sample
can be a common problem [4]. To alleviate
this concern, Quality Control is proposing a
vertically orientated XRD where the stage is
stationary. In this XRD set up, the detector
and the X-ray beam source move at a θ/θ
rate. The proper geometry is maintained,
however, the sample is not inclined to spill
[14].
As well, the sample preparation process
itself can create artifacts in the data. Great
care should be taken in the milling
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Illustrationof aMillerindex of
(200) [4].

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procedure. Particles ideally should measure
between 5 μm to 10 μm [4, 6]. Over milling
can create coarse particles and actually
breakdown the crystal structure of the
material. Without a proper crystal structure,
XRD is not a useful measurement technique
[4, 6]. 10 minutes of milling at 200 rpm is
recommended for these tests. Also, the
powder sample needs to be packed lightly
flat without causing the sample to take on a
single crystal orientation. Rough sample
surfacess can broaden X-ray spectra
readings and lower reflection intensities [4,
6]. The ideal scenario for powder XRD is that
the crystallite particles are extremely small
and the lattice orientations are all random
[4, 5, 6, 8, 13]. A recommended flattening
technique is discussed in the “Procedures”
section below.
Recommended Instrument
The type of crystallinecharacterization being
recommended in this proposal is fairly basic
in the realm of XRD. The Quality Control
Department is requesting an instrument to
simply determine the crystal phase of
synthesized titania nanoparticles (the
desirable anatase phase or the problematic
rutile phase). Because powder XRD is easily
set up for qualitative phase analysis the
needs for this proposal are not overly
stringent. A simple, modern XRD instrument
will meet the needs of TIR.
Quality Control was looking for an
instrument with the following minimum
specification (reasoning stated in the
sections above):
 A vertical set up (θ/θ rotation of X-ray
beam and detector, keeping the sample
base level and avoiding powder spills).
 Compact space needs (as the Quality
Control Lab is a moderate sized room).
 User-friendly software which connects
to highly reviewed reference data
samples.
 Use of Cu in the X-ray tube for a
characteristic spectrum of Kα1 (1.54056
Å) and Kα2 (1.54439 Å).
 Full range anglescanning (0° ≤2θ ≤ 140°).
 The ability to scan at variable speeds
(1°/min ≤ 2θ/min ≤ 10°/min).
 Affordable pricing.
As well, the Quality Control Department had
the following preferences when seeking out
the proper XRD unit:
 An XRD instrument that could operate
without the need of a heat exchange
cooler (as space is limited in the Quality
Control Lab).
 A Kβ X-ray filter that comes standard.
As a result of these conditions, the Quality
Control Department originally proposed the
purchase of a Rigaku MiniFlex300 Benchtop
XRD Instrument. This device is small enough
to be placed on a tabletop, yet powerful
enough to provide the quality control
measures TIR needs [14]. In its standard
package, the Miniflex300 meets or exceeds
every one of the requirements and
preferences listed above. However, for the
same price, TIR could buy the Rigaku
Miniflex600 (600 watt model). There are two
main differences between these models:
First, the 600 has twice the X-ray intensity of
the 300 which will allow for much better
analysis. Second, because of the higher
wattage, the 600 does need a separate heat
exchange cooler, which comes with the
machine at no extra cost. While the smaller
footprint was a preference for the purchase,
Quality Control has decided that the
increased X-ray beam power for no extra
cost is work reorganizing the lab. Therefore,

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the purchase of a Rigaku Miniflex600 XRD is
endorsed. Below is a listof how this machine
stacks up against the specifications and
requirements listed above:
 Vertical Set Up – The Miniflex600 has
the desired θ/θ X-ray tube to detector
set up at a 15 cm radius in the sample
chamber [14].
 Compact Space – The Miniflex600 has
dimensions of 0.56 m x 0.53 m x 0.7 m
(w x d x h) [14]. It is smallerthan ameter
in all directions so it will easily fit on a
table in the lab.
 User-friendly software – This XRD
comes with the PDXL software package
[14]. Upon investigation, the Quality
Control Department is confident that
this software is both useful and usable.
As well, it readily links to the
International Centre for Diffraction Data
Powder Diffraction File for reference [4,
6].
 Cu Characteristic X-ray Spectrum – The
Miniflex600 comes standard with a Cu
anode in the X-ray tube [14].
 Full Range Angle Scanning – This XRD
offers a scanning range even greater
than the desired specifications. The
Miniflex600’s scanning range is -3° ≤ 2θ
≤ 145° [14].
 Variable Scanning Speeds – The Rigaku
Miniflex600, as a standard option,
offers a greater range of scanning
speeds than required. This XRD has
scanning speeds of 0.01°/min to
100°/min (2θ) [14].
No Heat Exchange Cooler – This XRD,
operating at 600 watts does require an
external cooler. However, at no extra
cost, the Department has decided to
reorganize the Quality Control Lab to
accommodate the added equipment.
 Kβ X-ray Filter – The Miniflex600 offers
a nickel foil Kβ X-ray filter as a standard
feature.
Further, the RigakuMiniflex600, through the
use of standard features, would give TIR
Quality Control an additional method to
evaluate the size dimensions of TiO2
nanoparticles. Currently, this quality control
measurement is performed exclusively on
the company’s scanning electron
microscope (SEM). However, for certain
situations and following the best practice of
redundant verification, this second method
of size measurement could be very useful. A
brief discussion of why XRD could be useful
in nanoparticle sizemeasurement is found in
APPENDIX A.
As the base model for an XRD unit, it is
affordably priced in its category at $75,782.
The full Miniflex600 quote from Rigaku can
be found in APPENDIX B. As well, the entire
Bill of Materials for this request, including
accessories and peripheral equipment, is
included in APPENDIX C.
Procedures
Below are the proposed procedures for
operating the XRD and running the
necessary quality control tests.
Safety Precautions (Adapted from Yale
University.) [15]
1. Read the Operator’s Manuel of the
equipment prior to initialuse. As well,this
document should be reviewed yearly.
2. Visuallyinspect the XRD prior to every use
for any noticeable cracks or breaks in the
shielding.
3. The X-ray tube should never be turned on
when the sample chamber is open.
X

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4. Workers are encouraged not to linger
near the machine while atest is being run.
However, they should check for warning
lights on a regular basis.
5. A sign must be posted near the XRD
stating, “Caution! High Intensity X-ray
Bean in Use!”
6. Workers using the XRD should wear
radiation monitoring badges.
Sample Preparation
1. A 5 mL aliquot from each daily lot of
titanium dioxide nanoparticles will be
gathered and freeze dried.
2. Grind the sample to a fine powder in the
planetary ball mill (10 minutes at 200
rpm) [6]. Powder particles ≤ 10 μm are
preferred [4, 6].
3. Place onto the sample surface. Carefully
flatten the sample powder surface with a
glass slide. The top surface of the powder
should be flat to achieve a random
distribution of lattice orientations [6].
The instructions for operating the Rigaku
Miniflex600 cited below are adapted from
the XRD Research Lab at Princeton
University.
* Instructions for using the Rigaku
Miniflex600 X-ray Diffractometer (XRD)
Startup
1. Turn on main switch to XRD in the back.
2. IMPORTANT: Ensure no sample is being X-
rayed before sliding open the door of the
XRD. Load the sample into the XRD
chamber.
3. When the green ready light turns on, turn
X-ray tube on. The green ready light will
go out and the X-ray light will take 10-15
sec to turn on.
Sample Testing
1. Boot up the computer, if not started
already. (User: Administrator, Password:
TIRXRD) Double-click “Standard
Measurement” from the desktop.
2. Fill in the condition line(s), from left to
right. Click or double-click the cell to alter
the parameters as needed).
3. Toggle between “No” and “Yes” on
whether or not to use the condition line.
4. Toggle between “No” and “Yes” on
whether or not to print the output.
5. Input the “Folder Name.” This is the
directory path where the data will be
saved.
6. Set the “File name.”
7. Set the “Sample Name.” This is the
description of the sample for
identification purposes.
8. Set the “Condition.” Specify the
conditions of the scan (Default: 5° to 140°
2θ, 0.01 degree step size, 0.6 sec dwell
time). The total time required for the scan
will be 67.5 min. Each numerical tab is a
different condition setting. For custom
settings, change parameters in later
numbers.
9. Press the yellow “Execute Measurement”
button in the upper left of the window to
begin scan.
Shut Down
1. After the data is collected, it will be saved
in the chosen directory. Use PDXL (User:
Administrator, No password needed) to
analyze patterns. The PDXL User manual
is available through the “Help” menu.
2. Turn off the X-ray tube and computer
when finished. Wait 15 min for X-ray tube
to cool down before switching off the
main power supply.

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Basic Instructions for Operation of PDXL
Software
Starting the Software
1. Double click on the PDXL icon, located on
desktop or found in “Start Menu.” (User:
Administrator, No password needed)
2. In the “Flow” column on the left, click
“Data Process.” Confirm on the right
column that “Auto” is selected in the
“Analysis – Data process” bar.
Opening a File
1. Click on “File,” then “Load Measurement
Data.”
2. Find and select the folder, where your
data is stored.
Identifying Crystalline Phases
1. Click on “Data Process” on the left side of
the “Flow” window.
2. Click on “Auto Search…” in the right side
of the “Analysis – Identification (Auto
Search)” window.
3. Within the “Sub-file” tab, select “All sub-
files.”
4. Select the “Elements” filter tab. A periodic
table will open up.
5. Select the “Other” tab. Click the “Default”
button and check the “Show only phases
with RIR” value box.
6. Click the “Execute” button when ready to
initiate the search.
7. The “Candidate phase” window will
populate with best (low) figure of merit
(FOM) values. Select both “Titanium
Dioxide - Rutile” and “Titanium Dioxide-
Anatase.”
8. Once candidate phases are chosen, click
“Set” in the lower right. Peaks shown in
the “Information” window will have the
appropriate phases assigned to them
(scroll to the right to see them).
9. Clickon “Load Card Info…” on the left side
of the “Flow” window. This transitions
from searching the database to being able
to look at how the chosen/set candidate
phases match up to the test spectrum.
Click “Card Info…” in the “Information”
window on the right side. A card search
window willpop up. Notice that while this
search window is open, there is additional
labeling on the spectrum. The candidate
phases have markings where the peaks
are registered in the database.
10. Pull up database card information as
needed. This allows you to visualize how
the pattern changes with different
crystal symmetries. Clicking the
checkbox of aparticular search result will
overlay the database information on the
spectrum data.
11. Record the titania phase of the sample.
Loading Crystal Structure Parameters
1. Click the “Phase Information” tab in the
“Information” window, then the “Crystal
Structure” information tab.
2. Select the phase candidate for which you
wish to import crystal information, then
click “Import CIF…” to select the .cif file
and import the crystal structure
parameters.
Saving Data
1. Click “File,” then “Export Graph As,” then
“CSV Format.”
2. Choose the location where the file should
be stored.
3. Type in a filename. Click “OK.”
* Princeton University, Rigaku Miniflex600
XRD Instructions,
https://iac.princeton.edu/manuals/Rigaku_
Miniflex_XRD%20(new).pdf

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Data Output
Data recorded from an XRD typically comes
in one or both of two formats: As a
diffractogram (illustrated and explained
previously in Figure 6 on page 4) or as a peak
list [4]. A peak list is a simple table that
displays the pertinent data from the XRD
analysis. An example of a peak list for
anatase titanium dioxide is found in Table 1.
The peak list states at one glance which 2θ
angles showed intensity peaks, what those
peaks were and the d-spacing between the
lattice points for that diffraction intensity.
The peak list is a useful tool. This is the data
that the PDXL software uses to compare
against the reference database and
determine the phase of the titania sample.
As mentioned earlier when discussing the
diffractogram, the data recorded from a
rutile titania has clear distinctions from
anatase titania, meaning XRD analysis is the
ideal method for quality control in this area.
Conclusion
In response to the recent failures of TIR
manufactured solar panels due to wrong
phased rutile titanium dioxide, the quality
control mechanisms used by the company
must adapt. As outlined extensively above,
X-ray diffraction analysis is the best method
for phase determination in crystalline
structures like titania. Therefore, the Quality
Control Department is proposing the
purchase of a Rigaku Miniflex600 XRD at a
total price just under $100,000. While the
Quality Control Department realizes this is a
significant investment for the company, its
fruits outweigh the costs of continued and
multiplied solar cell failures in the field.
Table 1.
Table 1. Peaklistfor anatase titaniumdioxide [16].

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References
[1] Jeffryes, Clayton, Jeremy Campbell,
Haiyan Li, Jun Jiao, and Gregory Rorrer.
2011. "The Potential of Diatom
Nanobiotechnology for Applications in
Solar Cells,Batteries,and
Electroluminescent Devices." The Royal
Society of Chemistry.
doi:10.1039/c0ee00306a.
[2] Information, National Center for
Biotechnology, Medicine, U S National
Library of and Pike, 8600 R. "TITANIUM
DIOXIDE | O2Ti - PubChem.", accessed
March 15, 2016,
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/com
pound/titanium_dioxide#section=Top..
[3] Mohammadi, M. R., A. Mohammadi, and
D. J. Fray. 2008. "Sol–gel Nanostructured
Titanium Dioxide: Controlling the Crystal
Structure, Crystallite Size, Phase
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APPENDIX A – Using an XRD for Sizing Powder Particles*
An XRD can be used to sizeparticles in addition to defining the crystal lattice structure. The shape
of the reflectivity curve (produced by the measurement of the reflection intensity versus 2θ)
leads to analyzable characteristics. Characteristics being analyzed include layer thickness, layer
density, surface/interface roughness, and quality of layers/interfaces. When analyzed particles
are very small (in the nanoscale world), the reflectivity curve can also be used to determine the
average size of the particles. These complex calculations are done through the use of the
software included with the XRD.
The XRD is an effective instrument for measuring the size of crystalliteparticles and in some ways
to be preferred to many other instruments. First, XRD allows for the analysis of layers of particles
rather than having to disperse particles into a single layer needed for other analysis methods.
Second, XRD determines whether the particle is a single crystal or a composite of crystals. This
data can be very important for characterization purposes. As well, XRD is able to determine the
average crystallite size rather than the merely the particle size. The crystallite size is generally
smaller than the particle size and often useful data.
Reference
Ermrich, Martin. 2013. X-ray Powder Diffraction: XRD for the Analyst. 2nd ed. Almelo, The
Netherlands: PANalytical.
*Compiled with assistance from Holly Pafford, Joseph Zarth and Shelby Sims.

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APPENDIX B – Quote from Rigaku

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APPENDIX C – Bill of Materials
Item Cost
Rigaku MiniFlex600 XRD $75,782
http://www.rigaku.com/en/products/xrd/miniflex
Planetary Ball Mill $2,890
http://www.amazon.com/Ultrafine-Powder-Grinder-Planetary-50-
100ml/dp/B01B51WIIE
Titanium Dioxide Powder NIST Reference Material $684
https://www-s.nist.gov/srmors/view_detail.cfm?srm=8988
PDF-4, International Centre for Diffraction Data $8,660
http://www.icdd.com/products/2016-ICDD-Price-List.pdf
Radiation Badges $400
http://www.chpdosimetry.com/products.php
Sub-Total: $88,416
Tax (7%): $6190
Total: $94,606

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