The research paper has developed over the past three centuries into a tool to communicate the results of scientific inquiry.
The ability to accurately describe ideas, protocols/procedures, and outcomes are the pillars of scientific writing.
Defining research design, classification of research design, parts of a research design, concept of research design, importance of research design, functions of research design
Defining research design, classification of research design, parts of a research design, concept of research design, importance of research design, functions of research design
Critiquing research studies and articles is one of the method to improve the quality of research projects and it is also a method to learn research methodology for beginners.
Research Design (Research Types, Quantitative Research Design and Qualitative...Alam Nuzhathalam
An overview of Research Design: Definition, Classification of Research Design, Experimental Research Design, Non Experimental Research Design, Qualitative Research Design, Quantitative Research Design..
Research design can be described as a general plan about what you will do to answer the research question.[1]
Research design can be divided into two groups: exploratory and conclusive. Exploratory research, according to its name merely aims to explore specific aspects of the research area and does not aim to provide final and conclusive answers to research questions. In exploratory research the researcher may even change the direction of the study to a certain extent, however not fundamentally, according to new evidences gained during the research process.
The following can be mentioned as examples with exploratory design as research findings are not final and conclusive evidences to research questions:
A study into advantages and disadvantages of various entry strategies to Chinese market
A critical analysis of argument of mandatory CSR for UK private sector organisations
A study into contradictions between CSR program and initiatives and business practices: a case study of Philip Morris USA
An investigation into the ways of customer relationship management in mobile marketing environment
Studies listed above do not aim to generate final and conclusive evidences to research questions. These studies merely aim to explore their respective research areas.
Conclusive research can be divided into two categories: descriptive and causal. Descriptive research design, as the name suggests, describes specific elements, causes, or phenomena in the research area.
Causal research design, on the other hand, is conducted to study cause-and-effect relationships.
Slides prepared for beginners of nursing research or novice researchers. it will enhance and clear there basic understanding about using research designs.
Research methodology at students of university
OBJECTIVE Meaning, definition, purpose and components of research design.
Difference between the terms research method and research methodology.
steps in nursing research include several points
1) terminologies related to nursing research
2) phases of nursing research
3) conceptual phase
4) planning phase
5) analytic phase
6) communication phase
Critiquing research studies and articles is one of the method to improve the quality of research projects and it is also a method to learn research methodology for beginners.
Research Design (Research Types, Quantitative Research Design and Qualitative...Alam Nuzhathalam
An overview of Research Design: Definition, Classification of Research Design, Experimental Research Design, Non Experimental Research Design, Qualitative Research Design, Quantitative Research Design..
Research design can be described as a general plan about what you will do to answer the research question.[1]
Research design can be divided into two groups: exploratory and conclusive. Exploratory research, according to its name merely aims to explore specific aspects of the research area and does not aim to provide final and conclusive answers to research questions. In exploratory research the researcher may even change the direction of the study to a certain extent, however not fundamentally, according to new evidences gained during the research process.
The following can be mentioned as examples with exploratory design as research findings are not final and conclusive evidences to research questions:
A study into advantages and disadvantages of various entry strategies to Chinese market
A critical analysis of argument of mandatory CSR for UK private sector organisations
A study into contradictions between CSR program and initiatives and business practices: a case study of Philip Morris USA
An investigation into the ways of customer relationship management in mobile marketing environment
Studies listed above do not aim to generate final and conclusive evidences to research questions. These studies merely aim to explore their respective research areas.
Conclusive research can be divided into two categories: descriptive and causal. Descriptive research design, as the name suggests, describes specific elements, causes, or phenomena in the research area.
Causal research design, on the other hand, is conducted to study cause-and-effect relationships.
Slides prepared for beginners of nursing research or novice researchers. it will enhance and clear there basic understanding about using research designs.
Research methodology at students of university
OBJECTIVE Meaning, definition, purpose and components of research design.
Difference between the terms research method and research methodology.
steps in nursing research include several points
1) terminologies related to nursing research
2) phases of nursing research
3) conceptual phase
4) planning phase
5) analytic phase
6) communication phase
PSY326 Research Methods Week 3 GuidanceStart the week by viewing.docxpotmanandrea
PSY326 Research Methods Week 3 Guidance
Start the week by viewing the video on the Week 3 overview screen. Read Chapter 3 of your textbook and the research study you selected in Week 1.
After completing this instructional unit, you will be able to:
· Analyze three descriptive research designs.
· Evaluate a published research study.
In this week’s discussion, you will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the three descriptive research designs presented in Chapter 3, and give examples of appropriate research topics for each design. Do your best to explain the three research designs in your own words and try to suggest research topics for each design that are not mentioned in the textbook. There is no one right answer to the question of which design is best. What counts is that you can explain why you prefer your choice above the others. You may have a particular liking for the strengths of one of the designs, or you may be interested in a research topic that is suited to one of the designs more than the others. Remember that all discussions should cite at least two scholarly sources published within the last ten years, so be sure to search the Ashford Library resources for journal articles that extend the information given in the textbook on descriptive research and data. All references should be cited in APA format. See the Ashford Writing Center, under Learning Resources in the left navigation panel, for examples of correct APA style.
The quiz this week is due on Sunday and covers the concepts of non-experimental descriptive research presented in Chapter 3 of the textbook.
For the written assignment, you will critique the research study you selected in Week 1. It may seem like a light workload this week, but it is not. In order to critically analyze the research study and propose another (hopefully, better) way of doing the study, you will need to read the study a few times to make sure you fully understand the methods used. You also need to read some articles about research methods that you can find in the Research Methods research guide in the Ashford Library. Apply that information to your assessment of the study. Read the detailed instructions for the assignment and let your instructor know as early as possible if you have questions about it.
When determining if a study uses qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods, it is not always possible to rely on the wording of the title of the study. After you read the whole article, you may conclude that what the researchers actually did was different than what you expected from the title. Look for these clues when reading a research article.
When you see the word “variable,” the research is probably using quantitative methods. Essentially, variables in research mean the same thing that variables meant in your high school algebra class. They are numerical values that may be unknown and can change. Variables are designed to be used in statistical equations, which is a feature of quantitative ...
Quantitative Methods of Research-Intro to research
Once a researcher has written the research question, the next step is to determine the appropriate research methodology necessary to study the question. The three main types of research design methods are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data.
Preparing a research synopsis is tedious work for students as little knowledge and interest present for research, this PPT will definitely help in preparing a research synopsis.
Writing introduction, hypothesis and objectives of a thesis and scientific pa...Md. Nazrul Islam
This is the guideline for writing a thesis or scientific paper for MS students.
- Introduction
- Background and Setting
- Identification of Problem
- Definitions of hypothesis
- Types of hypotheses
- Guidelines for writing objectives and research questions
- Purpose Statement
- Objectives or Research Questions
- Assumptions
- Limitations
- Significance of The Study
Research Methodology of different data analysis slides.pptxtalhachemist222
General. All solvents were reagent grade or HPLC grade. Unless otherwise noted, all materials
were obtained from commercial suppliers and used without further purification. Melting points
were obtained on a Mel-Temp apparatus and are uncorrected. 1
H NMR spectra were recorded at
400 MHz. 13C NMR spectra were recorded at 100 MHz. Flash column chromatography was carried
out by Biotage Isolera One using ISCO RediSep silica gel cartridges. Analytical HPLC was
performed on an Agilent 1200 series HPLC system equipped with an Agilent G1315D DAD
detector (detection at 220 nm) and an Agilent 6120 quadrupole MS detector using an Agilent
Eclipse Plus C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 3.5 μm) at a flow rate of 1.25 mL/min. The HPLC
solvent system consisted of deionized water and acetonitrile, both containing 0.1% formic acid.
The mobile phase in HPLC consisted of 5% acetonitrile/95% water for 0.25 min followed by a
gradient to 40% acetonitrile/60% water over 1.5 min and then a gradient to 85% acetonitrile/15%
water over 2.25 min. Unless otherwise noted, all final compounds biologically tested were
confirmed to be of ≥95% purity by the HPLC methods described above. No unexpected or
unusually high safety hazards were encountered during the course of the experiments described
below.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100 mg, 0.72
mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl acetate (79 mg,
0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 °C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue was
purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel cartridge
(30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 99.7 mg (66% yield) of compound 5 d as a white solid.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100
mg, 0.72 mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl
isobutyrate (99 mg, 0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 °C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and
the residue was purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel
cartridge (30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 136.9 mg (79% yield) of compound 5e as a white
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100 mg,
0.72 mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl butyrate
(99 mg, 0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 o
C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue
was purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel cartridge
(30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 152.9 mg (89% yield) of compound 5f as a white solid.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100 mg,
0.72 mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl butyrate
(99 mg, 0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 o
C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue
was purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel cartridge
(30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 152.9 mg (89% yield) of compound 5f as a white solid.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotine
At the end of this presentation you will understand the essentials of financial management including building blocks and tools of financial management; accounting records; financial planning and monitoring; managing audits and how to safeguard your assets (internal control)
This presentation includes causes of maternal mortality; impact of maternal mortality; maternal health issues in northern nigeria; opportunities and strategies.
This presentation explains the difference between Monitoring and Evaluation; the types of M&E frameworks; steps in logical framework and its difference from theory of change.
A discourse the ideal feeding practices from pregnancy to infancy with a closer look into malnutrition, breastfeeding, complementary feeding and related interventions.
Gaps/needs assessment is an investigative process with the purpose of connecting an organization's performance problems or opportunities for performance improvement to specific human performance interventions
An Accountability Framework would allow for goal directed expenditure, result-based performance monitoring, re-defined roles and responsibilities, synergistic alignment of resources, transparent reporting and data management, as well as mutual consensus on pre-determined consequences for falling short of articulated targets.
In Nigeria, every year an estimated 124,000 children under the age of 5 die because of diarrhea, mainly due to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Lack of adequate water and sanitation are also major causes of other diseases, including respiratory infection and under-nutrition
An effective fieldwork logistics plan will not only help save resources, but will also make your data more reliable to enable any project or firm’s ability to meet its desired outcome
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
VFM seeks to enable decision makers know whether a program is/was worth doing, bearing in mind its costs, performance and alternative use of resources.
Qualitative research is primarily an exploratory research used to understand underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations and provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2. Objectives
To understand the considerations for writing a paper.
To understand what makes a “good” research question.
To understand the layout of a “good” research paper.
4. Introduction
The research paper has developed over the past three centuries into a tool to
communicate the results of scientific inquiry.
The ability to accurately describe ideas, protocols/procedures, and outcomes
are the pillars of scientific writing.
A research paper should aim:
a. to add to a body of knowledge
b. to present information so that it is easy to retrieve, and
c. to present enough information that the reader can duplicate the
scientific study.
5. Considerations for Writing a Research Paper
Research Paper/Manuscript
Importance Timeliness Relevance Prevalence Writing Style Study Design Literature Review
6. What makes a good research question?
Not all research questions are good ones—in other words, not all questions can
be answered through qualitative and quantitative research methodology. A good
research question needs to “Make sense”. i.e. clearly define your terms using
known definitions outlined in the literature. For example, a poor research
question would be: How do people’s lives change after cancer?
7. What makes a good research question?
Address an important and relevant issue: Scientific research is done to increase knowledge,
not simply for a single researcher’s personal satisfaction. A good research question will also
always have relevance to the time, place, and population of the study.
Not already have been done: A good research study will be novel. This means that there will
be some new aspect of the study that has never before been examined . When replicating a
pervious study, it is best to add or change one or two things to increase the novelty of the
research.
Be “operationalizable”: Oftentimes, beginning researchers pose questions that cannot be
operationalized, or assessed methodologically with research instruments.
Be within a reasonable scope: A good research project will be manageable in depth and
breadth. The scope will depend on the amount of time and the availability of resources you
have for your study.
8. Literature Review
One essential task when undertaking a research study is to review the existing
literature on the topic and use it to inform the construction of the study.
The literature review is crucial because an important responsibility in research is
to add to a body of knowledge and to compare your findings with others.
A literature review can bring clarity and focus to the research problem and
broaden one’s knowledge base in the specific research area.
Past studies can improve your methodology and help you to contextualize your
findings.
9. Qualitative and Quantitative Studies
Not all research projects require analytical measures.
Some research simply involves observing the results of events in the field and
drawing conclusions based on a theoretical framework.
Others may involve analyzing data from clinics or other institutions, using
statistics and reasoning to find patterns that may have important implications.
There are two broad categories of research: quantitative and qualitative.
10. Qualitative Studies
A study is classified as qualitative if the purpose is primarily to describe a
situation, phenomenon, problem or event.
Information is gathered through the use of variables or measured on qualitative
measurement scales.
Qualitative studies tend to be more “in-depth”, focusing on a smaller population
but probing deeper into a given problem. Often associated with focus groups,
interviews or surveys and seeks to answer open-ended questions.
Thematic and content analysis are two methods used to analyze qualitative data
11. Quantitative Studies
A study is classified as quantitative if the researcher seeks to quantify the
variation in a phenomenon and if information is gathered using quantitative
variables.
Quantitative studies often use standardized measures, numerical values, have
larger sample sizes, and usually analyze data using statistical programs e.g SPSS,
STATA, R, MINITAB etc.
12. Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an observed relationship or a causal
prediction about a relationship among several variables. Every research project is
based on a hypothesis, which generally begins with a specific question.
A hypothesis takes the operationalized definition of the factors to produce a clear
prediction of the causal relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable in the statement.
◦ The independent variable is a factor that the researcher can control or manipulate
◦ A dependent variable is a factor that the researcher cannot manipulate, but instead
varies in relation to the independent variable.
13. Examples independent variable and the
dependent variable :
Effect of drug dosage on symptom severity
◦ In a study of how different doses of a drug affect the severity of symptoms, a
researcher could compare the frequency and intensity of symptoms when
different doses are administered.
◦ Here the independent variable is the dose and the dependent variable is the
frequency/intensity of symptoms.
Effect of education on maternal outcome
oIn measuring the effect of education on maternal outcomes.
oThe dependent variable is maternal outcome and the independent variable is
the education level of the individual.
14. Sampling
Once the researcher has chosen a hypothesis to test in a study, the next step is to select a
sample. However, any research project must be able to extend the implications of the findings
beyond the sample (participants) who actually participated in the study.
Probability Sampling refers to sampling when the chance of any given individual being
selected is known and these individuals are sampled independently of each other. This is also
known as random sampling
Non-Probability Sampling, or convenience sampling, refers to when researchers take
whatever individuals happen to be easiest to access as participants in a study. This is only
done when the processes the researchers are testing are assumed to be so basic and universal
that they can be generalized beyond such a narrow.
15. Study Design
Cross-sectional studies are simple in design and are aimed at finding out the prevalence of a
phenomenon, problem, attitude or issue by taking a snap-shot or cross-section of the population.
Retrospective studies investigate a phenomenon or issue that has occurred in the past. Such
studies most often involve secondary data collection, based upon data available from previous
studies or databases
Prospective studies seek to estimate the likelihood of an event or problem in the future. Thus,
these studies attempt to predict what the outcome of an event is to be.
Longitudinal studies follow study subjects over a long period of time with repeated data
collection throughout. Some longitudinal studies last several months, while others can last
decades. Most are observational studies that seek to identify a correlation among various factors
16. Ensuring Validity
Validity refers to whether or not a study is well designed and provides results
that are appropriate to generalize to the population of interest.
There are three types of validity with which a researcher should be concerned.
◦ Internal validity
◦ Construct Validity
◦ External Validity
17. Internal Validity
Internal validity applies in studies that seek to establish a causal relationship
between two variables, and it refers to the degree to which a study can make
good inferences about this causal relationship.
The essence of internal validity is whether or not a researcher can definitively
state that the effects observed in the study were in fact due to the manipulation
of the independent variable and not due to another factor.
A study is considered to be internally valid if the researcher can demonstrate
that variable caused the observed effect.
18. Construct Validity
A study is considered to have construct validity if the researcher can demonstrate
that the variables of interest were properly operationalized in a way that allows for
accurate inferences to be made regarding the larger population. (external validity)
19. REFERENCING
There are different styles of referencing, however, the most commonly used is the APA Style.
In using this for in-text citations, the surname of the author and the date of writing is included after
every paraphrase. For example,(Sargeant, 2007) at the end of the sentence OR Sargeant (2007), found
that the fatty acid composition……
when there is no author mentioned, and the source was written by an organization. In this case, you
use the name of the organization or a recognized abbreviation. For example, WHO, for the World
Health Organization.
The link below provides detailed information on the use of APA style in referencing documents within
different areas of a research paper.
http://www7.esc.edu/hshapiro/writing_program/students/Handouts/main/research_apa.htm
20. Crossing the t’s and dotting the i’s of a
Research Paper
Experimental process Section of Paper
What did I do in a nutshell? ABSTRACT
What is the problem? INTRODUCTION
How did I solve the problem? MATERIALS and METHODS
What did I find out? RESULTS
What does it mean?
Why is it significant?
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
Who helped me out? ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (Optional)
Whose work did I refer to? LITERATURE CITED
Supporting Materials APPENCICES (Optional)
21. Finally….
The layout of the research paper should follow this format:
Title
Abstract
Key words
Main text:
Introduction
Methods
Result/Findings
Discussion on findings
Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Supplementary Data