The document provides an extensive overview of research methodology, defining research as a systematic inquiry that utilizes inductive and deductive methods to describe and control observed phenomena. It outlines critical characteristics of scientific research, including the importance of validity, systematic processes, and the manipulation of variables, as well as detailing various types of research, such as qualitative and quantitative approaches, and their respective advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, it presents a step-by-step process for conducting research, emphasizing the need for problem identification, literature review, data collection, and analysis.

1. Research Methodology
 Department of : MCMS
 Assignment no:1
 Submitted by: Nusrat Azeema
 Roll no:38
 Date:4 dec,2014

2. What is Research?
 Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods (Babbie, 1998). Inductive
methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or
processes underlying the phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the hypothesized
principles through observations. The purposes are different: one is to develop explanations, and
the other is to test the validity of the explanations.
 Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of
data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore.
Research consists of:
 Asking a question that nobody has asked before;
 Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and
 Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.
The Scientific Definition:
 The strict definition of scientific research is performing a methodical study in order to prove
a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of
any experimental process.
 Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These
rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.
 Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature
reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.
 Any type of ‘real’ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of
interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or
question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.
 The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be manipulated,
although case studies and purely observational science do not always comply with this norm.
Scientific method:
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to
qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control implies
that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain
logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow
others.
Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings
is correct and can be verified by you and others.

3. Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted
and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Validity- it can be stated that a research has highly validity if the study only contains what one wants
to study and nothing else. Validity refers to how well the data collection and data analysis of the
Research captures the reality being studied. In other words the researcher must obtain the reality of
responses of those people who are under the test through comparing their responses with such truth
that in deed is truth
Common Characteristics of Scientific Research:
Scientific research in its many forms, shares the following common characteristics:
 Think of or recognize a good (interesting, important, and tractable) problem.
 Learn a great deal about the problem.
 Decide which experiments/observations/calculations would contribute to a solution to the
problem.
 Perform the experiments/observations/calculations.
 Decide whether the results really do contribute to a better understanding of the problem.
 Communicate your results.
Basic Elements of Research:
Concept
 A concept is "an abstraction based on characteristics of perceived reality."
 "A label we put on a phenomenon that enables us to link separate observations and to make
generalizations. A convenience, a name we give to observations and events"
 An abstraction encompassing observed events; a word that represents the similarities or
common aspects of objects or events that are otherwise quite different from one another.
 The purpose of a concept is to simplify thinking by including a number of events (or the common
aspects of otherwise diverse things) under one general heading (Ary 1985).
 Chair, dog, tree, liquid, a doughnut, etc…
Construct
 Constructs are the “highest highest-level abstractions” of complicated objects and events,
created by combining concepts and less complex constructs. – used to account for observed
regularities and relationships, and to summarize observations and explanations (Ary 1985).
 A concept with added meaning of having been deliberately and con consciously invented or
seriously adopted for a special scientific purpose.

4.  It enters into theoretical schemes and is theoretical related in various ways to other constructs.
 It is defined and specified so that it may be observed or measured (Kerlinger 1986).
 Scientists measure things in three classes: direct observables, indirect observables (not
experienced or observed first hand), and constructs.
 These constructs are defined as constructs theoretical creations based on observations but
cannot be observed directly or observed indirectly (Kaplan 1964).
 Motivation, visual acuity, justice, problem solving ability, not a doughnut, but hunger. problem-
Variable
 Characteristics or attributes of an object, individual or organization that can be measured or
observed, and that varies among those objects or individuals being studied (Creswell 2002).
 They possess values and levels (the dimensions on which they vary) (Sommery 1997).
 “The concepts that are of interest in a study become the variable variables for s investigation
(Ary 1985).”
Different Kinds of Variables:
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
They show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example,
if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then
the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that
procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation
in the independent variable.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Independent variables are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve
manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing
new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research
setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will
have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.
INTERVENING VARIABLES
These refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the
independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually

5. inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher
cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent
variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning
processes used by the subjects are the intervening variables.
MODERATOR VARIABLES
They affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying
the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are
measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language
acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age,
culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.
CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular
study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a
biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are
called control variables.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Extraneous variables are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect
on the dependent variable(s) but which is not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous.
They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were
caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they
cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when
interpreting results.
Steps of the research process:
Step 1: Identify the Problem:
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or
information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a Recreation trend
nationally.
Step 2: Review the Literature:
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic
under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the
research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem:

6. Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad
in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope
of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge
gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the
research project.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts:
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the
study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the
study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must
specifically define them for the study.
Step 5: Define the Population:
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan:
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan
serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how,
when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program.
Step 7: Collect Data:
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of
data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer
the research question.
Step 8: Analyze the Data:
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered.
Kinds of Research
Kinds of Research by Philosophy:
Qualitative research:
Qualitative research is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to
quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols
 Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior
and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the

7. why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.
Advantages:
 It enables more complex aspects of a person’s experience to be studied •
 Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data be collected.
 Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily, Individuals can be studied in
more depth
 Good for exploratory research and hypothesis generation •
 The participants are able to provide data in their own words and in their own way
Disadvantages:
 It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of linguistic data •
 There is more subjectivity involved in analyzing the data.
 “Data overload” – open-ended questions can sometimes create lots of data, which
can take a long time to analyze!
 Time consuming
Quantitative research
Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any phenomena via
statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research
is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena
Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:
 The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
 The development of instruments and methods for measurement
 Experimental control and manipulation of variables RESEARCH •
 Collection of empirical data
 Modeling and analysis of
 Evaluation of results
Advantages:
 Quantitative research allows the researcher to measure and analyse data.
 The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.
 Quantitative research can be used to test hypotheses in experiments because of its
ability to measure data using statistics.

8. Disadvantages:
 The main disadvantage of quantitative research is the context of the study or
experiment is ignored
 Quantitative research does not study things in a natural PHENOMENOLOGICAL setting
or discuss the meaning things have for different people.
 A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate
Kinds of Research by Purpose:
Applied research:
Applies research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems.
Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop
innovative technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
 Improve agricultural crop production
 Treat or cure a specific disease
 Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation.
Basic Research:
Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist’s curiosity or interest in a
scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or
invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from
basic research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such a
 How did the universe begin?
 What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
 How do slime molds reproduce?
 What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
Other Research Kinds:
Historical research:
 Historical research is research involving analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent
past

9. Application:
 Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past and over time which can help us
to see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past.
 Understanding this can add perspective on how we examine current events and educational
practices.
The steps involved in the conduct of historical research:
Here are the five steps:
 Identification of the research topic and formulation of research problem or question.
 Data collection or literature review
 Evaluation of materials
 Data synthesis
 Report preparation or preparation of the narrative exposition
 Historical research gives a social scientist a better context for making realistic decisions.
Strengths:
 Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends
 Uses existing information
 Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems.
Limitations:
 Time-consuming
 Resources may be hard to locate
 Resources may be conflicting
 May not identify cause of a problem
 Information may be incomplete, obsolete, inconclusive, or inaccurate
 Data restricted to what already exists
Descriptive research:
Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a
particular individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.
These studies are a means of discovering new meaning describing what exists, determining the
frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied, which has an
impact of the lives of the people it deals with.

10. For example:
 finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research
will know what to do to QUALITATIVE RESEARCH prevent that disease thus, more people will live
a healthy life.
Advantages:
 The people individual studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they usually do in
everyday situation
 It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments;
 Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;
 As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is to start the research with it;
Disadvantages:
 Descriptive research requires more skills.
 Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon
 Response rate is low in this research.
 Results of this research can change over the period of time.
The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods:
Observational Research:
Observational research involves, well, observing. Say for instance you were interested in learning more
about how toddlers from different cultures engage in play activities. You would not want to impact their
natural inclinations to behave and engage in play activity, so you would watch from afar or perhaps
through a two-way mirror, simply observing and noting what you are seeing. After you complete all of
your observations, you can then make inferences about the differences and similarities that were noted.
Nothing has been manipulated and hopefully they didn't even know you were there.
Advantages of Observation Method:
• It can be used regardless of whether the respondent is willing to report or not.• It can be used even
when it pertain to those who are unable to respond such as infants and animals.
Limitations of Observation method:
• Only the current behavior of a person or a group of persons can be observed.
• Observation does not help us in gauging a person’s attitude or opinion on a certain subject nor his
knowledge of the same.
• The observational method is very slow and when a large number of persons are to be contacted , it
becomes unsuitable.

11. Case Study:
Another type of descriptive research method is called a case study. A case study involves making
detailed observations about one specific case. For instance, a medical student who is interested in
learning more about a particularly unique patient might study the behaviors and thought processes of
that one individual. This could consist of observations or interviews, but like observational research,
there is no influence from the researcher. The intent is simply to examine closely the qualities and
characteristics f of this one case.
Survey Method:
 A systematic method for gathering information from (a sample of) individuals for the purposes
of describing the attributes of the larger population of which the individuals are members.
 The attributes attempt to describe basic characteristics or experiences of large and small
populations in our world.
Features of a survey:
 Information is gathered by asking people questions
 Information is collected either by having interviewers ask questions and record answers or by
having people read or hear questions and record their answers
 Information is collected from only a subset of the population to be described (a sample) rather
than from all members.
On the other hand, the types of surveys according to the span of time used to conduct the survey are
comprised of cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.
According to Instrumentation:
1. Questionnaires:
Typically, a questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil instrument that is administered to the respondents. The
usual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended questions, which are followed by response
options. However, there are questionnaires that ask open-ended questions to explore the answers of
the respondents.
Questionnaires have been developed over the years. Today, questionnaires are utilized in various survey
methods, according to how they are given. These methods include the self-administered, the group-administered,
and the household drop-off. Among the three, the self-administered survey method is
often used by researchers nowadays. The self-administered questionnaires are widely known as the mail
survey method. However, since the response rates related to mail surveys had gone low, questionnaires
are now commonly administered online, as in the form of web surveys.
Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or consumer research

12. Disadvantages: Limit the researcher understands of the respondent’s answers; requires budget for
reproduction of survey questionnaires.
Interviews:
Between the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing. Questionnaires do
not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the answers of the respondents, but
interviews do.
An interview includes two persons - the researcher as the interviewer, and the respondent as the
interviewee. There are several survey methods that utilize interviews. These are the personal or face-to-face
interview, the phone interview, and more recently, the online interview.
 Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide better understanding of the answers of
the respondents
 Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed phone numbers
or no telephones at all
According to the Span of Time Involved:
The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types of surveys: cross-sectional
and longitudinal.
Cross-Sectional Surveys:
Collecting information from the respondents at a single period in time uses the cross-sectional type of
survey. Cross-sectional surveys usually utilize questionnaires to ask about a particular topic at one point
in time. For instance, a researcher conducted a cross-sectional survey asking teenagers’ views on
cigarette smoking as of May 2010. Sometimes, cross-sectional surveys are used to identify the
relationship between two variables, as in a comparative study. An example of this is administering a
cross-sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking among teenagers
as of May 2010.
Longitudinal Surveys:
When the researcher attempts to gather information over a period of time or from one point in time up
to another, he is doing a longitudinal survey. The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data and
examine the changes in the data gathered. Longitudinal surveys are used in cohort studies, panel studies
and trend studies.
Experimental research:
Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting
and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected variables
Advantages:

13.  Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships
Disadvantages:
 Artificiality
 Feasibility RESEARCH
 Unethical
The simplest experimental design includes two variables and two groups of participants.
The two variables (Independent versus Dependent variables:
 The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the outcome variable.
 Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study its effect on the DV
The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental group):
 Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns his/her sample to two
different groups: the control group and the experimental (treatment group or clinical group).
 The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no treatment), whereas the experimental
group receives the manipulation of the IV