This document provides an overview of a teaching primer on steel structures for colleges of architecture. It includes sections on the material facts of steel, its chemical composition and production processes. There are also sections on the structural properties and terminology used in steel construction, as well as profiles commonly used in steel structures. The document contains introductory slides and acknowledges contributions from various organizations and individuals.
STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE-CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTUREMohd Azmatullah
Steel is crucial in development of economy and is considered as backbone of human civilization.
* Important milestones in Architecture was development of iron and steel in construction.
*New Method based in industrialization
DRYCONSTRUCTION, RATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY, RECIYCLING
*Steel buildings and bridges were being built in the latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century during the British era,
*New trend:-
Structural steel selectively used in the construction of high-rise buildings with 2-4/ projects/ year in India, mainly in metropolitan cities those are constrained by limited land availability.
*The evolution of steel frame construction in the 20th century entirely changed the concept of the Wall and the support.
*Steel is typical because of high tensile and compressive strengths
*steel buildings save time and money as compared to conventional building systems.
*Strong internal demand and emphasis on developing infrastructure can be expected to remain the foundation of Economic growth.
Industry and infrastructure segments can be expected, the key demand drivers for steel structures in India over the next 5 years.
*Overall, there is good potential for steel structures in India owing to robust economic growth, increased government spending on infrastructure and change in mindset with regards to use of structural steel in building.
Steel has been widely used in construction for its strength, durability, flexibility and cost advantages. It allows for tall, large-scale buildings and landmarks around the world. The construction industry is a major end user of steel products like rebar and structural sections. Steel prices and the construction market are interconnected, as the construction sector influences demand and scrap prices affect input costs for steelmakers. Publications like SBB provide relevant industry news, prices and analysis on topics connecting steel production and construction.
The document discusses the history and development of steel as a building material. It describes how early iron extraction methods led to wrought iron with low strength, and how later techniques on like the Bessemer process improved steel production. Major historical structures that demonstrated the growing use of iron and steel in construction are highlighted, from 18th century cast iron bridges to tall skyscrapers in the early 20th century. The properties and classifications of steel per various codes and standards are also covered.
This document discusses best practices for designing steel structures for industrial buildings. It presents various structural forms including rigid frames, portal frames, lattice structures, and suspended structures. These forms provide large open spaces efficiently while allowing for flexibility. Key design factors discussed include loading, fire safety, building physics (thermal insulation), and concept design considerations. National practices for industrial steel building design are also reviewed.
1. This document discusses structural theories and applications of steel as a material. It provides an overview of the physical and mechanical properties of steel, how steel is produced, basic grades of steel, common steel sections, fire protection methods for steel structures, and the form of steel structures.
2. The document includes sections on the brief history of steel production, how steel durability is influenced by exposure conditions and treatment, elasticity properties of steel, measurement systems used to define steel properties, and concludes with advantages and disadvantages of steel structures.
3. References are provided and the document contains tables of contents and figures to illustrate steel properties and structural concepts.
Mild steel is a low-carbon steel with less than 0.25% carbon by weight, making it more ductile than higher-carbon steels. It is manufactured through processes like direct reduced iron and electric arc furnaces. Mild steel can be recycled without losing its properties. It has applications in construction materials, machinery parts, and other areas due to its strength, weldability, and lower cost compared to other steels. Some disadvantages are that it is heavier than other materials and prone to rusting.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is strong, tough, ductile, and durable. It exists in many forms for construction including carbon steels, alloy steels, and stainless steels. Steel has important physical properties like strength and toughness as well as chemical properties like density and thermal conductivity. Mechanical properties are also critical and determine the load steel can withstand. Notch toughness refers to a steel's ability to resist crack propagation which is important for durability. In buildings, steel is used for reinforcement cages in concrete, as well as foundations, beams, girders, and the structural frame.
STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE-CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTUREMohd Azmatullah
Steel is crucial in development of economy and is considered as backbone of human civilization.
* Important milestones in Architecture was development of iron and steel in construction.
*New Method based in industrialization
DRYCONSTRUCTION, RATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY, RECIYCLING
*Steel buildings and bridges were being built in the latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century during the British era,
*New trend:-
Structural steel selectively used in the construction of high-rise buildings with 2-4/ projects/ year in India, mainly in metropolitan cities those are constrained by limited land availability.
*The evolution of steel frame construction in the 20th century entirely changed the concept of the Wall and the support.
*Steel is typical because of high tensile and compressive strengths
*steel buildings save time and money as compared to conventional building systems.
*Strong internal demand and emphasis on developing infrastructure can be expected to remain the foundation of Economic growth.
Industry and infrastructure segments can be expected, the key demand drivers for steel structures in India over the next 5 years.
*Overall, there is good potential for steel structures in India owing to robust economic growth, increased government spending on infrastructure and change in mindset with regards to use of structural steel in building.
Steel has been widely used in construction for its strength, durability, flexibility and cost advantages. It allows for tall, large-scale buildings and landmarks around the world. The construction industry is a major end user of steel products like rebar and structural sections. Steel prices and the construction market are interconnected, as the construction sector influences demand and scrap prices affect input costs for steelmakers. Publications like SBB provide relevant industry news, prices and analysis on topics connecting steel production and construction.
The document discusses the history and development of steel as a building material. It describes how early iron extraction methods led to wrought iron with low strength, and how later techniques on like the Bessemer process improved steel production. Major historical structures that demonstrated the growing use of iron and steel in construction are highlighted, from 18th century cast iron bridges to tall skyscrapers in the early 20th century. The properties and classifications of steel per various codes and standards are also covered.
This document discusses best practices for designing steel structures for industrial buildings. It presents various structural forms including rigid frames, portal frames, lattice structures, and suspended structures. These forms provide large open spaces efficiently while allowing for flexibility. Key design factors discussed include loading, fire safety, building physics (thermal insulation), and concept design considerations. National practices for industrial steel building design are also reviewed.
1. This document discusses structural theories and applications of steel as a material. It provides an overview of the physical and mechanical properties of steel, how steel is produced, basic grades of steel, common steel sections, fire protection methods for steel structures, and the form of steel structures.
2. The document includes sections on the brief history of steel production, how steel durability is influenced by exposure conditions and treatment, elasticity properties of steel, measurement systems used to define steel properties, and concludes with advantages and disadvantages of steel structures.
3. References are provided and the document contains tables of contents and figures to illustrate steel properties and structural concepts.
Mild steel is a low-carbon steel with less than 0.25% carbon by weight, making it more ductile than higher-carbon steels. It is manufactured through processes like direct reduced iron and electric arc furnaces. Mild steel can be recycled without losing its properties. It has applications in construction materials, machinery parts, and other areas due to its strength, weldability, and lower cost compared to other steels. Some disadvantages are that it is heavier than other materials and prone to rusting.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is strong, tough, ductile, and durable. It exists in many forms for construction including carbon steels, alloy steels, and stainless steels. Steel has important physical properties like strength and toughness as well as chemical properties like density and thermal conductivity. Mechanical properties are also critical and determine the load steel can withstand. Notch toughness refers to a steel's ability to resist crack propagation which is important for durability. In buildings, steel is used for reinforcement cages in concrete, as well as foundations, beams, girders, and the structural frame.
Mild steel consists of iron alloyed with less than 0.3% carbon. Mild steel frames are commonly used in building construction as they allow for ductility and malleability. A mild steel frame uses a skeleton structure of vertical steel columns and horizontal beams arranged in a grid pattern to support floors, roofs, and walls. This technique enabled the construction of skyscrapers. Various steel construction materials are discussed, including cuplocks, steel plates, props, acrospans, channels, jacks, joint pins, couplers, mild steel pipes, and steel challis. Their uses, properties, sizes, and specifications are described.
Steel is widely used in bridge construction due to its high strength, versatility, and durability. Some key advantages of steel bridges include their speed of construction through prefabrication, ability to be modified or repaired, high strength-to-weight ratio which allows for shallow foundations and ease of transport, and sustainability through recycling. Major steel bridges from around the world demonstrate these advantages, such as the Millau Viaduct which used steel beams that were lighter and easier to construct than concrete would have been.
The document discusses the history and production of steel. It notes that steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is strong under both tension and compression. The document outlines the process of steelmaking, including producing molten iron in blast furnaces and converting it to steel in basic oxygen furnaces. It describes how mini-mills now produce most steel from recycled scrap in electric arc furnaces. Structural steel shapes like beams are cast and rolled into forms, with wide-flange shapes being most common for beams and columns.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is strong, hard, and resistant to corrosion. There are many types of steel classified based on carbon content and other alloying metals. Common types include mild steel, medium carbon steel, stainless steel, high speed steel, and cobalt steel. Steel is used widely in construction for buildings, bridges, ships, and other infrastructure due to its strength and durability. Some famous structures that showcase steel construction include the Eiffel Tower, Empire State Building, Sydney Harbor Bridge, and Gateway Arch.
Most steel construction is done with a type of steel called mild steel. Mild steel is a material that is immensely strong. Take a circular bar of steel 1 inch / 25mm in diameter. If you were to attach this bar securely to your ceiling, you could hang from it 20,000 Kg (which is 20 tons)
This immense strength is of great advantage to buildings. The other important feature of steel framing is its flexibility. It can bend without cracking, which is another great advantage, as a steel building can flex when it is pushed to one side by say, wind, or an earthquake. The third characteristic of steel is its plasticity or ductility.
The document discusses options for constructing a mobile showroom with large spans and within a short timeframe. It analyzes using pre-cast concrete or a steel frame. A steel frame is proposed due to requirements for immediacy, its single-story design, ability to have large spans without restrictions, and advantages of speedy erection, less on-site work, flexibility, and value. Standard steel sections, connections, and passive fire protection via spray coating are presented.
STEEL - As a Building material:
A 20-minute brief presentation on STEEL for a seminar session.
This presentation covers the areas of :
Origin of Steel, Discovery of STEEL, History of steel making, Classification of STEEL , Properties of steel, Mild Steel , Characteristic tension test curve, Medium Carbon Steel, High Carbon Steel, TOR Steel, Manufacturing processes.
Why STEEL is preferred to concrete?
Disadvantages of STEEL
Some Important Steel Structures
The document discusses light gauge steel frame construction. It describes the main components used - C-sections for studs, joists, and rafters; tracks to cap framing members; channels for bracing; and hat channels for furring. It provides examples of naming conventions and standard sizes for these components. Additionally, it covers accessories like L-headers and slip tracks, methods for cutting and fastening light gauge steel, and considerations for gauge/thickness of steel sheets.
Comparison Presentation Between Light Gauge Steel Frame Construction System a...Sankar Anand
Steel construction has several advantages over concrete construction. Steel structures have better earthquake and wind resistance due to their light weight. They provide better heat and sound insulation than concrete structures. Steel construction requires less labor, takes less time to construct, and is more eco-friendly than concrete construction. While the initial costs may be higher for steel, the long-term savings on energy bills and maintenance outweigh the higher upfront expenses.
Chopra Aluminium provides metal building services and introduces a new light gauge framing system using galvanized steel that allows for prefabricated, modular construction. The system uses computer software and machinery to automatically cut, form, and label framing components that assemble like a puzzle to create buildings efficiently with precise dimensions and minimal on-site labor.
Multi storey structural steel structuresThomas Britto
Steel has been used in construction for over 150 years. Its use in Hong Kong started in the 1970s with projects like the Park Lane Hotel. Steel has properties that make it suitable for high-rise buildings like strength and versatility, though it can be heavy, lose strength in heat, and rust. Standard steel sections provide design flexibility. Connections are made through joints like splices and welds. Common frame types include simple cage frames, cantilevers, wind-braced, and core structures. Steel construction has advantages like lighter weight and flexibility for changes, but has challenges like fire resistance, movement, and corrosion protection.
Pre-engineered steel buildings are designed and fabricated off-site using standardized structural components. They are lighter and more economical than conventional construction. The key components include tapered steel columns, rafters, purlins, girts, and sheet metal panels. Structural analysis and design are performed to calculate loads and optimize the frame based on factors like wind speed and seismic zone. Components are then erected on-site by connecting prefabricated pieces together using bolted joints.
The document discusses the history and components of concrete. It describes how Romans originally developed concrete using volcanic ash, lime, and aggregate. Modern concrete consists of cement, water, and aggregate. Cement is produced by burning limestone and other materials in a kiln. There are different types of cement specified by ASTM for various purposes. Concrete production contributes significantly to carbon dioxide emissions but efforts are being made to reduce this impact through cement substitutions and recycling.
This document provides an overview of metals and metal by-products. It discusses the extraction of metals from ores through processes like pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. It then describes various physical and mechanical properties of metals like hardness, conductivity, strength. Ferrous metals like iron and steel are explained in detail, along with common alloys. Non-ferrous metals discussed include aluminium, noting its use in modern construction for properties like durability, design flexibility, and surface finish options.
Nowadays, there are various types of steel bars available in the construction industry. The following presentation will guide you with some of those steel bars. Take a look.
METALS AND IT'S APPLICATION IN ARCHITECTURE.MaayeshaSayeed
The document discusses various types of metals and alloys used in construction. It describes ferrous metals like steel, cast iron, and wrought iron which contain iron. Non-ferrous metals discussed include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, and tin which do not contain iron. It outlines the extraction and processing of metals from ores, and their various applications in building materials, structures, and ornamentation throughout history.
The document provides information on various construction materials including reinforcement concrete, finishing materials, fitting materials, and methods of construction. It then discusses steel and non-steel materials. Under steel, it defines iron steel and its types (ingot iron, cast iron, wrought iron, mild steel), and characteristics and uses. It also defines non-iron steel and provides details on copper, aluminum, zinc, bronze and brass. Finally, it covers non-steel materials like glass, plastic and asphalt, stating their types, characteristics and uses.
study the macroscopic properties of steel .Saad Javed
The document provides instructions for identifying the heat treatment process performed on a given specimen. This is done by observing the microstructure under a microscope after etching, identifying the heat treatment process, and performing a hardness test. The process involves sectioning and cutting the specimen, mounting it, grinding it using progressively finer grit paper while changing the angle, polishing it using diamond paste, etching it using nital solution to reveal the microstructure, and testing the hardness. Based on the microstructure of ferrite and pearlite grains and the softness and hardness, the specimen in this case was determined to be annealed.
Historic wooden architecture has been an important part of many cultures for centuries. Wood was commonly used as a building material before the modern era as it was readily available and could be easily shaped. These wooden structures showcase the craftsmanship and techniques used in earlier periods of construction.
Mild steel consists of iron alloyed with less than 0.3% carbon. Mild steel frames are commonly used in building construction as they allow for ductility and malleability. A mild steel frame uses a skeleton structure of vertical steel columns and horizontal beams arranged in a grid pattern to support floors, roofs, and walls. This technique enabled the construction of skyscrapers. Various steel construction materials are discussed, including cuplocks, steel plates, props, acrospans, channels, jacks, joint pins, couplers, mild steel pipes, and steel challis. Their uses, properties, sizes, and specifications are described.
Steel is widely used in bridge construction due to its high strength, versatility, and durability. Some key advantages of steel bridges include their speed of construction through prefabrication, ability to be modified or repaired, high strength-to-weight ratio which allows for shallow foundations and ease of transport, and sustainability through recycling. Major steel bridges from around the world demonstrate these advantages, such as the Millau Viaduct which used steel beams that were lighter and easier to construct than concrete would have been.
The document discusses the history and production of steel. It notes that steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is strong under both tension and compression. The document outlines the process of steelmaking, including producing molten iron in blast furnaces and converting it to steel in basic oxygen furnaces. It describes how mini-mills now produce most steel from recycled scrap in electric arc furnaces. Structural steel shapes like beams are cast and rolled into forms, with wide-flange shapes being most common for beams and columns.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is strong, hard, and resistant to corrosion. There are many types of steel classified based on carbon content and other alloying metals. Common types include mild steel, medium carbon steel, stainless steel, high speed steel, and cobalt steel. Steel is used widely in construction for buildings, bridges, ships, and other infrastructure due to its strength and durability. Some famous structures that showcase steel construction include the Eiffel Tower, Empire State Building, Sydney Harbor Bridge, and Gateway Arch.
Most steel construction is done with a type of steel called mild steel. Mild steel is a material that is immensely strong. Take a circular bar of steel 1 inch / 25mm in diameter. If you were to attach this bar securely to your ceiling, you could hang from it 20,000 Kg (which is 20 tons)
This immense strength is of great advantage to buildings. The other important feature of steel framing is its flexibility. It can bend without cracking, which is another great advantage, as a steel building can flex when it is pushed to one side by say, wind, or an earthquake. The third characteristic of steel is its plasticity or ductility.
The document discusses options for constructing a mobile showroom with large spans and within a short timeframe. It analyzes using pre-cast concrete or a steel frame. A steel frame is proposed due to requirements for immediacy, its single-story design, ability to have large spans without restrictions, and advantages of speedy erection, less on-site work, flexibility, and value. Standard steel sections, connections, and passive fire protection via spray coating are presented.
STEEL - As a Building material:
A 20-minute brief presentation on STEEL for a seminar session.
This presentation covers the areas of :
Origin of Steel, Discovery of STEEL, History of steel making, Classification of STEEL , Properties of steel, Mild Steel , Characteristic tension test curve, Medium Carbon Steel, High Carbon Steel, TOR Steel, Manufacturing processes.
Why STEEL is preferred to concrete?
Disadvantages of STEEL
Some Important Steel Structures
The document discusses light gauge steel frame construction. It describes the main components used - C-sections for studs, joists, and rafters; tracks to cap framing members; channels for bracing; and hat channels for furring. It provides examples of naming conventions and standard sizes for these components. Additionally, it covers accessories like L-headers and slip tracks, methods for cutting and fastening light gauge steel, and considerations for gauge/thickness of steel sheets.
Comparison Presentation Between Light Gauge Steel Frame Construction System a...Sankar Anand
Steel construction has several advantages over concrete construction. Steel structures have better earthquake and wind resistance due to their light weight. They provide better heat and sound insulation than concrete structures. Steel construction requires less labor, takes less time to construct, and is more eco-friendly than concrete construction. While the initial costs may be higher for steel, the long-term savings on energy bills and maintenance outweigh the higher upfront expenses.
Chopra Aluminium provides metal building services and introduces a new light gauge framing system using galvanized steel that allows for prefabricated, modular construction. The system uses computer software and machinery to automatically cut, form, and label framing components that assemble like a puzzle to create buildings efficiently with precise dimensions and minimal on-site labor.
Multi storey structural steel structuresThomas Britto
Steel has been used in construction for over 150 years. Its use in Hong Kong started in the 1970s with projects like the Park Lane Hotel. Steel has properties that make it suitable for high-rise buildings like strength and versatility, though it can be heavy, lose strength in heat, and rust. Standard steel sections provide design flexibility. Connections are made through joints like splices and welds. Common frame types include simple cage frames, cantilevers, wind-braced, and core structures. Steel construction has advantages like lighter weight and flexibility for changes, but has challenges like fire resistance, movement, and corrosion protection.
Pre-engineered steel buildings are designed and fabricated off-site using standardized structural components. They are lighter and more economical than conventional construction. The key components include tapered steel columns, rafters, purlins, girts, and sheet metal panels. Structural analysis and design are performed to calculate loads and optimize the frame based on factors like wind speed and seismic zone. Components are then erected on-site by connecting prefabricated pieces together using bolted joints.
The document discusses the history and components of concrete. It describes how Romans originally developed concrete using volcanic ash, lime, and aggregate. Modern concrete consists of cement, water, and aggregate. Cement is produced by burning limestone and other materials in a kiln. There are different types of cement specified by ASTM for various purposes. Concrete production contributes significantly to carbon dioxide emissions but efforts are being made to reduce this impact through cement substitutions and recycling.
This document provides an overview of metals and metal by-products. It discusses the extraction of metals from ores through processes like pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. It then describes various physical and mechanical properties of metals like hardness, conductivity, strength. Ferrous metals like iron and steel are explained in detail, along with common alloys. Non-ferrous metals discussed include aluminium, noting its use in modern construction for properties like durability, design flexibility, and surface finish options.
Nowadays, there are various types of steel bars available in the construction industry. The following presentation will guide you with some of those steel bars. Take a look.
METALS AND IT'S APPLICATION IN ARCHITECTURE.MaayeshaSayeed
The document discusses various types of metals and alloys used in construction. It describes ferrous metals like steel, cast iron, and wrought iron which contain iron. Non-ferrous metals discussed include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, and tin which do not contain iron. It outlines the extraction and processing of metals from ores, and their various applications in building materials, structures, and ornamentation throughout history.
The document provides information on various construction materials including reinforcement concrete, finishing materials, fitting materials, and methods of construction. It then discusses steel and non-steel materials. Under steel, it defines iron steel and its types (ingot iron, cast iron, wrought iron, mild steel), and characteristics and uses. It also defines non-iron steel and provides details on copper, aluminum, zinc, bronze and brass. Finally, it covers non-steel materials like glass, plastic and asphalt, stating their types, characteristics and uses.
study the macroscopic properties of steel .Saad Javed
The document provides instructions for identifying the heat treatment process performed on a given specimen. This is done by observing the microstructure under a microscope after etching, identifying the heat treatment process, and performing a hardness test. The process involves sectioning and cutting the specimen, mounting it, grinding it using progressively finer grit paper while changing the angle, polishing it using diamond paste, etching it using nital solution to reveal the microstructure, and testing the hardness. Based on the microstructure of ferrite and pearlite grains and the softness and hardness, the specimen in this case was determined to be annealed.
Historic wooden architecture has been an important part of many cultures for centuries. Wood was commonly used as a building material before the modern era as it was readily available and could be easily shaped. These wooden structures showcase the craftsmanship and techniques used in earlier periods of construction.
This document provides a trail of various wooden religious buildings located across Poland, including churches, chapels and temples from as early as the 15th century up to the 19th century. It mentions over 30 specific locations and religious sites constructed primarily from wood, including Orthodox, Lutheran and Catholic churches in towns like Kwiatoń, Sękowa, Dębno, Nowy Sącz, Berest, Milik, Świdnica, Krynica Zdrój, Krużlowa and Moszczenica Niżna. It also highlights some unique wooden structures like the 18th century Tatar mosque in Kruszyniany and the wooden Wang Temple transferred from Norway to
e-magazine arsitektur. ruang 08|2014 Vol.2: Preservasi (Aksi)akudanruang
e-magazine arsitektur ruang hadir kembali dengan tema “Preservasi”. Pada edisi 08|2014 volume 2 Preservasi: Aksi, ruang menampilkan beberapa intervensi dalam "Preservasi"
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with small amounts of other elements like manganese, phosphorus, and silicon. Carbon content in common steel grades ranges from 0.1-1%. These alloying elements determine the properties of different steel types. Steels are classified as low alloy (<10% other elements) or high alloy, and can be further broken down by carbon content. Low carbon steels are commonly used and have good weldability and machinability but require cold working to strengthen. Alloying elements like manganese and phosphorus increase hardness and strength but decrease ductility.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is strong yet affordable, making it widely used in construction. It has a long history dating back thousands of years. There are many types of steel classified by composition and manufacturing process. Steel is made through heating iron ore with coke in a blast furnace, then further processed. It is strong but vulnerable to fire. Its major uses are in buildings, infrastructure, transportation, appliances, packaging, and energy projects due to its strength and versatility.
Space frames are truss-like, lightweight rigid structures constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. They can span large areas with few interior supports due to their inherent rigidity from triangles transmitting flexing loads as tension and compression. Common uses of space frames include building entrances, airports, cinema halls, and canopies. Advantages over conventional systems are random column placement, column-free spaces, minimal perimeter support, controlled load distribution, design freedom, and ability to support all types of roofing.
Dokumen tersebut membahas berbagai jenis pondasi yang dapat diterapkan pada bangunan mulai dari pondasi dangkal seperti telapak, batu kali, umpak, hingga pondasi dalam seperti tiang pancang, sumuran, dan bor pile. Jenis pondasi ditentukan oleh faktor berat beban dan keadaan tanah di lokasi.
Ebook "bamboo archtecture " tổng hợp những công trình sử dụng tre làm vật liệu cơ bản. Đây sẽ là những ví dụ tham khảo rất hay cho KTS và các bạn sinh viên. Quyển sách này rất rất bổ ích, hồi sinh viên mình tìm mãi mà không ra.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang struktur pelat lantai beton. Menguraikan pengertian, fungsi, jenis, klasifikasi, sistem tumpuan dan metode pelaksanaan pelat lantai beton untuk konstruksi bangunan.
Uses of various steel in civil engineeringSameer Nawab
This document discusses different types of steel used in civil engineering projects. It describes ferrous metals like mild steel, which contains 0.15-0.3% carbon and is used for construction beams and reinforcement. High carbon steel with 0.55-1.5% carbon is stronger and used for tools. High tension steel, with under 0.15% carbon, is lighter and stronger in tension, making it suitable for prestressed concrete reinforcement. The document provides details on production of steel from iron ores and its various applications in construction.
This document discusses various methods for connecting bamboo in construction. It begins by outlining some of the challenges of connecting round, hollow bamboo canes. It then describes traditional friction-tight rope connections and plug/bolt connections. Several modern systems are introduced that use elements like steel cores, threaded bars, and resin to achieve stronger interlocking connections between bamboo pieces. The document provides detailed illustrations and explanations of many traditional and contemporary bamboo connection techniques.
The document provides examples of architectural projects that utilize bamboo as a building material. It lists the names of over 15 buildings, structures, furniture pieces and artworks made of bamboo from locations around the world like Taiwan, France, Thailand, New York, Haiti, China, and Japan. The document emphasizes that bamboo can be used for building surfaces, structures, membranes and joinery.
This document discusses the use of bamboo as a construction material. It begins with an introduction on the benefits of bamboo, including that it is strong, renewable, environmentally friendly. The objectives are then presented as studying bamboo characteristics and modern construction techniques. Several building elements that can be made from bamboo are described, including walls, floors, roofs, and methods for protecting bamboo structures. Overall, the document outlines how bamboo can serve as an affordable, sustainable building material.
This document summarizes a site visit by students to an Ajiya glass and metal factory. It focuses on properties of steel, which the group chose as their topic. Steel has many applications in construction like floor decks, frames, trusses, and cladding. It has advantages like strength and recyclability but disadvantages like cost and need for maintenance. The document discusses physical and chemical properties, sustainability, aesthetics, performance in fires and earthquakes, and maintenance needs to prolong steel's lifespan. It concludes the site visit benefited students' understanding of building materials.
Using Steel In Solar Racking and MountingJMCSteelGroup
When it comes to solar installations, steel provides a number of advantages that you may not already know. Steel supplier Wheatland Tube and racking manufacturer Patriot Solar Group detail the latest in steel-working knowledge and how best to apply the metal in solar racking and mounting.
Structural Steel and Timber Design EV306 Project Reportherry924
This document summarizes a student's structural steel and timber design project report for a double storey steel building. The student followed British standards and used STAADPro software to analyze and design the building, which included columns, beams, trusses, and purlins made of steel sections. The student stated that the design was their original work done under guidance and checked calculations by hand to verify the STAADPro analysis results.
Machining challenges in stainless steel – a reviewIJARIIT
In today’s world AISI Stainless Steel contributes to almost half of the world’s production and consumption
for industrial purposes. Stainless Steel is most popular alloy widely used in part manufacturing due to its inherent
properties like high strength, great corrosion resistant, high ductility etc. but are hard materials to machining on base
performance criteria like metallurgical aspect, low thermal conductivity, chip formation, cutting tool wear and surface
integrity. The surface roughness and material removal rate have been identified as quality attributes and are assumed
to be directly related to performance, productivity, and production costs. In this paper study of various machining
problem discussed by different researchers and their probable solution, which helps to reduce tool wear, increase
corrosion resistance, high surface finish by reducing machining complexity.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is a versatile engineering and construction material. It has physical properties like strength, flexibility, and durability that provide advantages. Steel construction allows for fast building, earthquake safety, optimized space, and flexibility for future changes. Stainless steel resists corrosion and staining. Corrosion is material degradation from the environment and takes forms like general, galvanic, and within concrete where chloride ions can damage the protective concrete film around reinforcing steel.
1. Steel is the most widely used material for building infrastructure and industries due to its low cost, strength, and versatility. It can be formed into a variety of shapes.
2. The document discusses several steel construction precedents including HL23 in New York, the NASCAR Hall of Fame in Charlotte, and Lee Hall III at Clemson University. These projects utilized structural steel systems like braced frames, shear walls, and trusses.
3. Structural steel allowed the precedents to achieve unique architectural forms with long spans, minimal columns, and exposed structural elements as design features. The steel systems provided strength and stiffness while reducing structural dimensions.
Study Of Bleeding Breakout In Thin Slab CasterShubham Thakur
This documentation deals with the all the processes and sub-processes undergoing in the newly installed department in Tata Steel ,i.e., LD3 & TSCR, mainly focussing on "Bleeding Breakout" problem in TSCR shop.
This document provides an introduction to steel-concrete composite structures. It explains that steel-concrete composite elements use concrete's compressive strength alongside steel's tensile strength, resulting in a highly efficient and lightweight unit commonly used for buildings and bridges. It then discusses the advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete structures, steel structures, and steel-concrete composite structures. Examples of existing steel-concrete composite buildings are also presented.
MOOi is a leading architecture practice based in Cambridge. Our approach is influenced by the principles of Dutch design and our name, pronounced ‘moy’, connects with our Dutch roots (the meaning is ‘all things beautiful’ – a positive endorsement of our philosophy!)
Visit the following link to know more : http://www.mooiarchitecture.co.uk/
Finite Element Modeling for Effect of Fire on Steel FrameIJERA Editor
This research is intended to be preliminary study lending to the detailed behavior of steel member i.e. Plane Frame.
This paper shows the behavior of steel structures in fire the use of steel in building construction and its behavior
when exposed to fire is presented. Fire performance of structural steel at elevated temperature includes the study of
steel frame subjected to fire. Also the effect of stress strain temperature on the fire performance of structural steel
should be observed. The behavior of a steel frame in a fire depends on many factors including the properties of the
steel and the coating material on it. Computer application based on ANSYS software used to study the various
parameters affecting the overall behavior of steel structures in fire is presented. The present paper shows the effects
of stress–strain relationships on the fire performance of steel frame exposed to uniformly increasing temperature
when steel is unprotected and protected with concrete using FEM.
Can you write a report about steel.In your report you need to includ.pdfAmansupan
Can you write a report about steel.In your report you need to include the types of steel,the
manufacturing process of steel,the application of steel in construction and also the advantages
and disadvantages of steel.You need to write your answer neatly so that I can see and understand
it easily.
Solution
INTRODUCTION
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction
and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steel\'s base metal is
iron, which is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic
(BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC), depending on its temperature. , it’s one of the most
popular metals in fabrication shops.
TYPES OF STEEL
1) Carbon Steels:
Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of total steel
production. Carbon steels can be further categorized into three groups depending on their carbon
content:
2) Alloy Steels:
Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper,
chromium and aluminum) in varying proportions in order to manipulate the steel\'s properties,
such as its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability or ductility.
Applications for alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts, transformers, power generators and
electric motors.
3) Stainless Steels:
Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element and
are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more
resistant to corrosion than mild steel. These steels can be divided into three groups based on their
crystalline structure:
4) Tool Steels:
Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.
2) Deformed steel bars
Mild steel bars are used for tensile stress of RCC (Reinforced cement concrete) slab beams etc.
in reinforced cement concrete work. These steel bars are plain in surface and are round sections
of diameter from 6 to 50 mm. These rods are manufactured in long lengths and can be cut
quickly and be bent easily without damage.
As deformed bars are rods of steels provided with lugs, ribs or deformation on the surface of bar,
these bars minimize slippage in concrete and increases the bond between the two materials.
Deformed bars have more tensile stresses than that of mild steel plain bars. These bars can be
used without end hooks. The deformation should be spaced along the bar at substantially uniform
distances.
To limit cracks that may develop in reinforced concrete around mild steel bars due to stretching
of bars and some lose of bond under load it is common to use deformed bars that have projecting
ribs or are twisted to improve the bond with concrete. These bars are produced in sections from 6
mm to 50 mm dia.
In addition the strength of bonds of d.
Steel is widely used for bridge construction due to its strength, ductility, and cost-effectiveness. Various types of steel are used including carbon steel, high-strength steel, weathering steel, and stainless steel. Welding is the primary method for joining steel components in bridges. Common welding processes for bridges include shielded metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, and gas metal arc welding. Proper selection of welding processes and steel types is important for achieving the required strength and durability of steel bridges.
This document provides information about Ecosteel, a company that specializes in light gauge steel construction. It discusses Ecosteel's manufacturing process, which involves 9 phases from architectural design to interior finishing. The document also discusses the benefits of steel construction, including that steel is strong, durable, recyclable, earthquake resistant, and economical to use. Sample projects completed by Ecosteel are also presented.
Stainless steel is an alloy that contains at least 11-13% chromium which forms a protective oxide layer that prevents corrosion. It is commonly used in orthodontics for wires, brackets, and bands. The three main types are ferritic, martensitic, and austenitic stainless steels which are classified based on the crystal structure of the iron. Austenitic stainless steel containing 16-26% chromium and 6-22% nickel is most commonly used due to its corrosion resistance, ductility, and ability to be cold worked without fracturing. Stainless steel undergoes solid state phase transformations between ferrite, austenite, and martensite structures depending on temperature and carbon content.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is strong, hard, and resistant to corrosion. There are many types of steel classified based on carbon content and other alloying metals. Common types include mild steel, medium carbon steel, stainless steel, high speed steel, and cobalt steel. Steel is used widely in construction for buildings, bridges, ships, and other infrastructure due to its strength and durability. Some famous structures that showcase steel construction include the Eiffel Tower, Empire State Building, Sydney Harbor Bridge, and Gateway Arch.
composition of steel?
why Steel??
types of steel
composition of steel?
advantages of steel
disadvantages of steel
Uses of steel
limitation of steel
thermal properties of steel
This document provides an overview of structural steel design. It discusses steel as a structural material, its advantages, common sections and grades. It covers design philosophies like limit states, allowable stress design and load resistance factor design. Applications of steel and some key aspects of steel construction are presented. The history and role of codes are summarized. An overview of the LRFD manual is also provided.
This document provides an overview of steel, including:
- Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, along with other metals like nickel and chromium.
- There are many types of steel classified by their composition, including high-carbon steel, mild steel, stainless steel, and high speed steel.
- Steel is widely used in architecture for its strength, durability, and ability to be shaped into various structures. Iconic steel buildings like the Eiffel Tower and Empire State Building are discussed.
The document summarizes the process of conducting a tensile test on steel. It begins by explaining that a tensile test provides important information about a material's strength and ductility properties when subjected to uniaxial tensile stresses. The process involves using a tensile testing machine to apply a gradually increasing pulling force to a steel sample until it breaks. Key material properties like ultimate tensile strength, elasticity, stiffness and toughness can be determined from the stress-strain diagram generated during the test.
Steel grounding-design-guide-and-application-notesNick Wang
This document provides guidance on steel grounding design and application notes. It introduces a formula to estimate corrosion rates of underground steel based on soil characteristics like resistivity, pH, moisture and aeration. It discusses using this formula and IEEE Standard 80-2000 to design steel grounding systems. It also discusses cathodic protection design to minimize steel corrosion. Numerical examples are included to enhance understanding of steel grounding design for high voltage substations.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Adaptive synchronous sliding control for a robot manipulator based on neural ...IJECEIAES
Robot manipulators have become important equipment in production lines, medical fields, and transportation. Improving the quality of trajectory tracking for
robot hands is always an attractive topic in the research community. This is a
challenging problem because robot manipulators are complex nonlinear systems
and are often subject to fluctuations in loads and external disturbances. This
article proposes an adaptive synchronous sliding control scheme to improve trajectory tracking performance for a robot manipulator. The proposed controller
ensures that the positions of the joints track the desired trajectory, synchronize
the errors, and significantly reduces chattering. First, the synchronous tracking
errors and synchronous sliding surfaces are presented. Second, the synchronous
tracking error dynamics are determined. Third, a robust adaptive control law is
designed,the unknown components of the model are estimated online by the neural network, and the parameters of the switching elements are selected by fuzzy
logic. The built algorithm ensures that the tracking and approximation errors
are ultimately uniformly bounded (UUB). Finally, the effectiveness of the constructed algorithm is demonstrated through simulation and experimental results.
Simulation and experimental results show that the proposed controller is effective with small synchronous tracking errors, and the chattering phenomenon is
significantly reduced.
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Project Director
Slide Design & Graphics
Production Assistants
IT Coordination
Photography
Software
For additional information,
please contact:
College of Architecture,
UNC-Charlotte
PRODUCTION TEAM College of Architecture
UNC - Charlotte
CREDITSThe Material Steel |
David Thaddeus, AIA, Associate Professor
Thaddeus@email.uncc.edu
David Thaddeus, AIA
Jennifer August
Brittany Eaker
Kathy Phillips
Matt Parker
David Thaddeus, AIA
Nate Robb
PowerPoint
Photoshop
Deborah J. Arbes, RA
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
This project was made possible through funding from the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
with support from the College of Architecture at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Special thanks to the following people at AISC for their support and help over the duration of the project:
Fromy Rosenberg, PE, Director, AISC University Programs
Megan Maurer, Coordinator, AISC University Programs
The following people have my sincere gratitude for serving on the Focus Group and offering their
comments and feedback in the development of this project :
Kurt Baumgartner, AIA, JIA, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign
Terri Meyer Boake, Associate Professor, University of Waterloo
Thomas Fowler, Associate Professor, California Polytechnic State University
Harry Kaufman, PE, NCARB, Professor, Southern Polytechnic State University
Kemp Mooney, Kemp Mooney Architects
Tim Mrozowski, AIA, Professor, Michigan State University
Ryan Smith, Assistant Professor, University of Utah
The following AISC members have provided invaluable insight into the content of this teaching aid:
Ron Bruce, PE, President, Builders Steel Company, North Kansas City, MO
Lawrence Kruth, PE, Engineering & Safety Manager, Douglas Steel, Lansing, MI
David McKenzie, PE, Vice President - Engineering, SP International, North Kansas City, MO
Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) is a non-profit technical
institute and trade association established in 1921 to serve the structural steel
design community and construction industry in the United States.
AISC is offering this teaching aid and learning tool for educational purposes only.
The data and information in this presentation is not intended for use in the
physical construction of steel structures.
The information presented here is considered public information and as such may
be distributed or copied. The use of appropriate credit to for images, byline,
animations, and content is requested.
We hope that you and your students will find this information useful.
Please contact Fromy Rosenberg (rosenberg@aisc.org) for further information
on AISC or for feedback on this teaching / learning product.
Please contact David Thaddeus (thaddeus@email.uncc.edu) for questions or
comments on the content of this project.
Terms
TERMSThe Material Steel |
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ateachingprimerforcollegesofarchitecture
STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
The Material Facts
Chemical Composition
Production
Structural Properties
Terminology
Profiles in Steel
Protection of Steel Members
Appropriate Technology / Sustainability of Steel
Module I
Contents:
Overview
CONTENTS
CONTENTSThe Material Steel |
Clinical Sciences Research,
Stanford University . Palo Alto, California
Sir Norman Foster
The de Menil Collection Museum
Houston, Texas
Renzo Piano
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Steel | The Material Facts
Today steel is produced in over 50 countries all across the world.
In 2003, China was the first country to produce more than 200 million tons of crude
steel in a year (more than 20% of the world’s steel is produced in China).
China is the world’s largest consumer of steel (cars, general industry, construction…)
Japan is the largest exporter of steel.
More than 60% of the steel produced annually is from recycled steel.
Properties of steel are not altered by how many times it is recycled.
Per pound of material, steel is the most efficient of all building materials.
A small amount of steel can do load-carrying tasks with a fraction of the material
needed from other materials such as concrete or wood.
Steel is the densest of structural materials and therefore handles longer spans,
and produces lighter structures with the greatest economy.
Steel can be found in fasteners (nails…), structural components, rebar,
sheet-metal, appliances, cars, ships, …
To every ton of Portland Cement produced, 3 tons of wood and 10 tons of steel
are produced.
The United States and China are the largest importers of steel.
British Inventor Henry Bessemer produced the first economical steel in 1856.
Steel is the world’s most recycled material. Steel is recycled mostly from junk cars
(3-400,000 cars per year per steel mill; 27 cars / minute in North America ).
THE MATERIAL FACTS
Steel was first produced in 1738 in Sheffield, England, know as “crucible steel”
in was very pure, but difficult and expensive to produce.
The Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Steel is an alloy of Iron, Carbon (<2%), and Manganese (<1%).
It also contains small amounts of Phosphorous, Silicon,
Sulfur and Oxygen
Carbon content greatly affects the properties of steel
More Carbon increases : strength, hardness, corrosion-resistance
More Carbon decreases : malleability, ductility, and weldability
The amount of Carbon does NOT affect the Modulus of Elasticity (E)
of the Steel
Stainless Steel
Adding 15-18% Chromium and 7-8% Nickel produces
corrosion-resistant steelCor-Ten Steel Sculpture
By Richard Serra
Museum of Modern Art
Fort Worth, TX
Weathering Steel (Cor-Ten Steel)
Adding Copper and Phosphorous creates a steel that forms an oxide coating,
rust, that adheres to the base metal and prevents further corrosion
Steel | Chemical Composition
these chemical elements are controlled
to provide consistent quality and grade of steel
Carbon Steel
is Carbon Steel to which one or more chemical
elements have been added to achieve certain physical or chemical
properties
Alloy Steel
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONModule 1 |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Steel | Production
Open Hearth Furnace (OHF)
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
Refining is the addition of alloys to obtain certain characteristics
in the steel:
U.S. has roughly 25% of world coal supply.
Steel is heated to molten state to remove oxides
Three Types of Production Furnaces:
Iron ore constitutes 5% of earth’s crust, 70% of earth’s core is iron.
Molybdenum- strength.
Manganese- resistance to abrasion and impact.
Vanadium- strength and toughness.
Nickel and chromium- toughness, stiffness and corrosion resistance.
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process is environmentally safer.
Casting: Liquid steel is cast into semi-finished products; billet, blooms
By 1980s computer controls were prevalent in steel mills.
Whether BOF or EAF all steel is recycled back into steel, so although
BOF has a lower % of recycled steel, it is still as environmentally friendly.
PRODUCTIONThe Material Steel |
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Open Hearth Furnace (OHF):
Discontinued in USA due to OSHA and EPA regulations,
it wasted energy and manpower.
Last Open Hearth Furnace in U.S. was closed down in 1980s.
Extreme heat burned out impurities in iron.
Accepts variable amounts of scraps (20-80%) .
3000°F minimum temperature required, 10 hours to accomplish.
Worldwide, 3.6% of steel produced in 2003 was OHF.
PRODUCTIONThe Material Steel |
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Steel | Structural Properties
Ductile, absorbs energy
Quick erection.
Flexibility, Strength, Durability, Functionality.
Steel is a lightweight solution that is
strong enough to allow for longer spans.
Steel buildings are light and therefore require
smaller foundations than heavier building materials.
Less time on construction site reduces cost.
Shop Fabrication reduces on-site work down to
the assembly and the erection of frame only.
Shop Fabrication reduces on-site weather delays.
The Material Steel | STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
Charles de Gaulle Airport
Paris . France
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Structural
Properties:
Overview
Steel is consistent, isotropic and homogenous.
Density 490 LBS./ FT 3
or 0.25 LB. / IN 3
(concrete: 144 LBS./ FT 3
or 0.08 LB./ IN 3
,
wood: 35 - 40 LBS. / FT 3
)
Steel is capable of precise tolerances and with proper
detailing will provide an exceptionally tight building
envelope.
Minimum on-site waste.
Strong and stiff for very little weight.
The Material Steel | STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
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Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel lends itself naturally
to sustainable building.
AESS avoids additional finishes and, therefore, saves
the energy which would have been used to produce
and transport those finishes.
Using steel whenever possible increases the amount
of recyclable content in building.
Using Bolted connections vs. Welded
makes disassembly / re-use easier.
The integration of structural and mechanical components
which is facilitated by AESS can save building materials.
Besides being structural, Hollow Steel Sections (HSS)
can also convey hot water and therefore contribute to the
heating or plumbing of the building.
The finish color used on the AESS system can enhance
reflectance, reducing lighting and thus saving A/C.
Use of steel and glass atria for natural light (a design
feature common in AESS buildings) can also reduce the
demand for artificial lighting and in turn A/C demand.
The high visibility of an AESS system demands a very
high level of attention to the detailing of the steel members,
their finishes and their connections.
TERMINOLOGYThe Material Steel |
Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel (AESS)
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RemarksApplicationsName Features /
Strengths
Sample Designation Size Range
W 12 x 50 Bending
Compression
Beams
Columns
3/8”< tf < 2”
1/4”< tw < 5”
Wide Flange 12 : Nominal depth
50 : Weight / Lin. Ft.
W 4 – W 44
9 #/ft – 30 #/ft
M-Shapes M 14 x 18 14 : Nominal depth
18 : Weight / Lin. Ft.
M 5-M 14
4.4-18 #/ft
Bending Beams
Columns
Smaller
members
that are
not W,
HP, S
HP 14 x 102 Compression
Bearing
Piles tw = tf < 1”14 : Nominal depth
102 : Weight / Lin.Ft.
HP 8 – HP 14
36 - 117 #/ft
Bearing Piles
S 15 x 50
Bending
Beams
Columns
Flanges
slope at 2:12
Not as
stable as
W-shapes
15 : Nominal Depth
50 : Weight / Lin. Ft.
S 3 - S 24
5.7 - 121 #/ft
American
Standard
(I-beam)
PROFILES IN STEELThe Material Steel |
Steel | Profiles in Steel
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL RemarksApplicationsName Features /
Strengths
Sample Designation Size Range
C 10 x 30
Bracing
Lintels
Stairs
Trusses
Nominal
Depth =
Actual Depth
No torsional
strength
10: Actual depth
30: Weight / Lin. Ft.
C3 - C15
4.1 - 50 #/ft
American
Standard
Channel
Tension
Compression
Bending
Miscellaneous
Channels
MC 13 x 50 13: Actual depth
50: Weight / Lin. Ft.
MC 6-18
6.5 - 58 #/ft
PROFILES IN STEELThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL RemarksApplicationsName Features /
Strengths
Sample Designation Size Range
WT 5 x 9.5
MT 5 x 4.5
ST 5 x 12.7
Compression
Tension
Bending
Bracing
Trusses
Lintels
Split W
-shape
lengthwise
Structural Tees: 5: Nominal depth
9.5, 4.5, 12.7:
Weight/Linear Ft.
WT2 - WT18;
4.5 - 179.5 #/ft
MT2.5 – MT7;
2.2 - 9.45 #/ft
ST1.5 – ST12;
2.85 - 60.5 #/ft
Equal
Leg Angle
L 4 x 4 x 1/2 4 : Leg size
½”: Leg thickness
L 1 x 1 x 1/8-
L 8 x 8 x 1 1/8
Compression
Tension
Bending
Bracing
Trusses
Lintels
Connections
t = 1/8” –
t = 1- 1/8”Unequal
Leg Angle
L 6 x 4 x 1/2 6: Long leg
4: Short leg
½”: Leg thickness
L 2 1/2 x 2 x 3/16
- L 9 x 4 x 5/8
PROFILES IN STEELThe Material Steel |
Cut from W
Cut from M
Cut from S
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Pipes
RemarksApplicationsName Features /
Strengths
Sample Designation Size Range
Stable
Good in
Torsion
Columns
Trusses
Braces
Compression
Tension
20” side
12” side
5/8” thickness
4 x 4 x 1/2 4” each side
½” thickness
2 x 2 x 3/16 –
8 x 8 x 5/8
t: 3/16” - 5/8”
Columns
Trusses
Braces
Rectangular 20 x 12 x 5/8
Square
Stable
Good in
Torsion
Columns
Trusses
Braces
Compression
Tension
½” -12” diameter
½” -12” diameter
2 ”- 8” diameter
Standard
Extra Strong
Double Extra
Strong
Compression
Tension
PROFILES IN STEELThe Material Steel |
3 x 2 x 3/16 –
20 x 12 x 5/84
t: 3/16” - 5/8”
6” Φ Extra
.
Strong
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Objective:
To maintain structural integrity for a specified
period of time to allow the evacuation of
occupants and secure access for firefighters.
Steel | Fire Protection
Fire resistance is expressed in units of time it takes
the structural member to reach failure by heating.
Steel loses its integrity at 500°C (~930°F), and
most of its strength at 600°C (1100°F).
Lighter steel sections will require more fire protection
than thicker sections since heavier sections will heat
up at a slower rate.
Steel sections that are in contact with concrete take
longer to heat up than ones without contact.
The thickness of fire protection material dictates its
fire rating and the protection time it delivers.
Light gauge steel products heat up very quickly.
FIRE PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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Minimum fire-resistance ratings for primary and
secondary structural members is provided in
Building Codes and is based on Occupancy and
Type of Construction.
The total area and weight of a building determines
its Building Type.
Most multi-story steel frames are Type I or
Type II - non combustible.
Primary structural members include: columns,
beams, girders, trusses and other structural
members directly connected to columns.
Steel that is to be fire protected should not be painted or
galvanized in order to adhere straight to the base metal.
Fire protection systems are determined by appearance,
durability, cost, ease of installation, finish quality, surface
preparation needed, and speed of application.
Most fire protection systems can provide
up to 4 hours (non-combustible) including
intumescent paints.
FIRE PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
Charles de Gaulle Airport
Paris . France
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Cost
(Relative)
Care must be
taken to
achieve even
application
Surface
Preparation
Material QualityAppearanceInformation Installation Fire
Rating
Applied to
unpainted
steel
$$
to
$$$
May be used
exposed
Overspray
Can be
troweled
Not typically
aesthetically
acceptable in
public areas
Easy to cover
complex
areas/details
Must mask
adjacent
areas
Very Messy
Interferes with
other trades
$
increasing
thickness
adds
durability
but also
weight
FIRE PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
Sprayed Fire Resistant Materials (SFRM) | Two Types: Reactive and Non-Reactive
Thin-film
Intumescent
Paint
Epoxy Base
Intumescent
Industrial
Application
&
Provides
insulation by
expanding and
providing “char”
of low heat
conductivity
Kicks in at
200°-250°,
way before
steel starts
to fail
Thickness:
0.03” – 0.4”
Epoxy Base
Up to 1” thick
&
Mineral Fiber
(Dry)
Cementitious
(Wet)
SPRAYED
Non-reactive
Reactive Thin coat
allows steel
profile to
retain detail
and remain
aesthetically
pleasing
attractive
decorative
finishes are
available
Epoxy Base
has course
texture
Brush or
spray applied.
Easy to cover
detail (around
pipes, etc.)
Easy to repair
Wet trade
Must have
proper
atmosphere
conditions at
time of
application
Overspray
must be
considered
Limited fire-
protection
duration
Steel
preparation
may be
necessary
Up to
1 Hr.
(standard)
Can
achieve
4 Hrs.,
but is
costly
Thicker
= more
passes
= more
cost
Up to
4 hrs.
1 hr.
per inch
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Cost
(Relative)
Surface
Preparation
Material QualityAppearanceInformation Installation Fire
Rating
FIRE PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
Blanket
Insulation
Concrete
Encasing
Unsightly
(needs to be
hidden)
Dry. No effect
on other
trades
$
Less popular
today with the
introduction
of lighter fire
protection
materials
Same as
concrete or
concrete
block
construction
lost space
due to
massiveness
$$$ Unsurpassed
Durability
Non-reactive Uniform
thickness
Applied to
unfinished steel
varies
with
thick-
ness
Applied to
unfinished steel
Typical
construction
methods
adds
significant
weight to the
structure
Weatherability
1-2
Hrs.
Non-reactive Acceptable
Clean, boxed
appearance
can be left
unfinished in
unseen areas
or finished
where visible
Dry
(no wet mess)
Difficult in
small / detailed
areas.
Slower than
some other
methods
Uniform
thickness
assures
the quality
of the rating
Typical for
columns
less usual
for beams
Applied to
unfinished steel
$$
½” =
1 hr.
Up to
4 Hrs.
Gypsum
Board
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Additional Fireproofing Methods
Water and antifreeze for Hollow Steel Section (HSS)
Metal flame shields.
Filling HSS with concrete increases their compressive ability while also providing fire protection.
- Plain concrete fill (1-2 hours), steel yields after 20-30 minutes, then concrete
takes over, concrete can only last so long, then cracks and collapses.
- Adding steel fiber to concrete (2-3 hours) helps carry compression loads longer.
- Adding rebar (2-3 hours).
FIRE PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Plain steel corrodes quickly in moist environments.
Corrosion of steel does not occur if relative humidity
<60%; at 70% relative humidity corrosion is accelerated.
Corrosion (oxidation) is an electrochemical reaction that
oxidizes the iron in steel, commonly called rust.
This makes the steel look unsightly.
It eventually makes steel thinner, vulnerable to water infiltration,
it spalls, loses its structural strength, gradually disintegrates,
and ultimately fails.
When a metal oxidizes, it reverts to its natural, lower energy state.
Zinc is a less noble metal than steel, but corrodes at a slower rate.
CORROSION PROTECTION
Steel | Corrosion Protection
Objective:
To protect structural integrity from the
environmental forces, which act over time,
to deteriorate the individual members of the system.
The Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Internal Alloying
Involves altering the composition of the steel alloy to include nickel, chromium and other
corrosion resistant elements.
This results in stainless steel or weathering steel (weathering steel forms a tight
oxide layer that adheres to the base metal and protects it).
This method of protection (internal alloying) is more expensive than painting or
metallic coating.
CORROSION PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Barrier Protection
Paint
Is a barrier protection system.
Not impervious to moisture infiltration.
Scratches and thus loses its protection ability.
Weather conditions affect application.
Metal Coating: Zinc, Aluminum (anodizing)
Cheap, easy to apply by dipping (easy to coat
details), maintenance free.
Barrier protection system that is impermeable.
Metallic zinc coating has good adhesion to
base metal, abrasion and corrosion resistance.
Zinc is a reactive material which will eventually
corrode and erode away.
CORROSION PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Galvanized protection is proportional to its
thickness and corrosion rate.
Steel is protected by the sacrificial corrosion
of the zinc layer ( 1/10 the rate of steel
corrosion).
If scratched, adjacent steel will not corrode.
Twice the coating thickness will result in twice
the protection.
Amount of protection also depends on the
environment in which the steel will be used
(industrial atmospheres, marine, soil, near
chemicals…).
Galvanizing is done in a factory where quality
is consistent and work is independent of the
weather.
CORROSION PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Surface Preparation and Hot-Dipping:
Surface preparation is essential for
any barrier protection to be effective.
Steel surface may be prepared by:
Caustic cleaning - removes organic
contaminants such as dirt, oil, etc
by dipping in a hot alkali solution.
Pickling - removes scale and rust
by dipping in an acid solution.
Fluxing - removes oxides and
prevents further oxidation.
If surface is not clean, zinc will not
metallurgically react with the steel.
Unclean areas will come out uncoated
from hot-dip process.
CORROSION PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Hot dipping involves complete immersion of
member in 98% molten (840°F) zinc.
The molten zinc reacts with steel to form a
series of alloy layers.
Members are entirely coated on all surfaces
including all details.
Hot-dip galvanizing metallurgically binds the
zinc coating to the base metal and provides
protection from corrosive environments.
Hot-dip galvanizing of hollow steel sections
(tubes and pipes) will coat both inside and
outside allowing indoor / outdoor use.
CORROSION PROTECTIONThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Steel is the most recycled product in the world.
Changes in the processes of steel production
have reduced energy demands. The use of
continuous casting eliminates energy demands
for re-heat treatment of steel.
Steel buildings and other products are
consistently salvaged and recycled.
Concrete is crushed and used as road fill;
rebar is recycled.
Although steel is locally manufactured, not all
raw ingredients for B.O.F. are locally extracted.
Four R’s of sustainability:
Reduce, Re-use, Recycle, and Restore.
Steel producers are constantly striving to reduce
emissions into air and water, and in general to soften
the impact on the world environment.
SUSTAINABILITY
Steel | Sustainability
The Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Recycling steel is done for economic reasons in addition to the environmental benefits.
Most steel products (cars, appliances, bridges, buildings…) have longevity of use and
so there is a shortage of steel to recycle.
Since the supply of steel for recycling is less than demand, raw materials for B.O.F.
continue to be mined.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Once a steel appliance is melted down,
it may find new life as a steel column, a
can of soup, a car, or an appliance again.
Environmental efficiency of materials
is analyzed according to the LEED
performance standard or embodied
energy (life cycle inventory) approach
(cradle to grave and cradle to cradle).
Efficiency of material recycling can be
measured either by recycled content
or reclamation rate (number of times
it is recycled).
Magnetic properties of steel permit easy
separation from other building materials
after demolition.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
The De Menil Collection Museum . Houston, Texas
Renzo Piano
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
The North American steel industry has been recycling steel scrap for 150 years through
1800 scrap processors and 12000 auto-dismantling facilities.
Whether B.O.F. or E.A.F. product, steel is recycled into other steel.
Steel products have an endless life through infinite recovery cycles without losing
workability or strength and so may be a perfect application of “cradle to cradle” concept.
Re-using steel could be through disassembly for later re-assembly, or through re-use
on another project or through re-melting in a furnace.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Steel that is to be re-used may be tested
for yield strength or carbon content.
Chemical tests are also used to verify
the weld-ability of recycled steel.
Through the use of smaller and lighter
members for longer spans than other
materials, steel will reduce the building
section and thus the sizes of mechanical
systems needed.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Clinical Sciences Research, Stanford University . Palo Alto, California
Sir Norman Foster
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
In some instances, using a steel frame instead
of a concrete frame will result in half the dead
load and half the foundation weight.
Steel is a green building product.
In general, it is often more economical to salvage
a building rather than sending it to the landfill.
Steel industry accounts for 6% (approximately
45 Billion M Watts) of total electrical energy
consumption in U.S.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Since 1999, construction of all new federal facilities
must apply sustainable design principles.
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Recycling Facts and Figures
70 Million tons of steel recycled annually.
60% of which was derived from
construction.
400 Million tons worldwide.
1.5 x all other recycled material.
1 ton recycled steel saves:
2500 lbs iron ore
1400 lbs coal
120 lbs limestone
LEED:
Commercial construction produces
2-2.5 lbs solid waste / sq.ft. in demolition.
This may be recycled or re-used.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Nasher Sculpture Center . Dallas, Texas
Peter Walker, Landscape Architect
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL Improved Production Methods
Early Recycling Processes: 100 tons of raw material yielded 60 tons steel.
Current Recycling Processes: 100 tons of raw material yielded 90 tons steel.
B.O.F. 25-35% scraps. E.A.F. 90 -100% scraps.
In 2003: 60.2% steel cans, 102.8% cars, 89.7% appliances,
96% structural steel members, 60% rebar were recycled.
Total 70.7% of all steel products are recycled.
In U.S. most structural shapes and rebars are produced in E.A.F.
HSS are produced in B.O.F.
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Cy Twombly Gallery
Houston, Texas
Renzo Piano
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
USGBC - US Green Building Council
LEED - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
LEED is a performance, not a descriptive standard.
Most widely used green building rating in U.S.
69 possible points
Platinum 52+
Gold 39-51
Silver 33-38
Certified 26-32
(not much cost in securing ‘Certified’ level)
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Nasher Sculpture Center
Dallas, Texas
Renzo Piano
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL LEED Core Categories
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Clinical Sciences Research,
Stanford University . Palo Alto, California
Sir Norman Foster
• Sustainable Sites 14
credits possible
Local ecology, near public transport,
reduction of
commuting by car.
• Water Efficiency 5
credits possible
Buildings account for 1/6 fresh water
consumption
water efficient fixtures reduce this
amount.
• Energy and Atmosphere
17 credits possible
Renewable and green power
sources.
• Materials and Resources
13 credits possible
Conserve raw materials and
resources (fossil fuels)
Steel contributes most to this
category.
• Indoor Environmental Quality
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL LEED Core Categories
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
Clinical Sciences Research,
Stanford University . Palo Alto, California
Sir Norman Foster
Sustainable Sites - 14 credits possible
Local ecology, near public transport, reduction of
commuting by car.
Water Efficiency - 5 credits possible
Buildings account for 1/6 fresh water
consumption
water efficient fixtures reduce this
amount.
Energy and Atmosphere - 17 credits
possible
Renewable and green power
sources.
Materials and Resources - 13
credits possible
Conserve raw materials and
resources (fossil fuels)
Steel contributes most to this
category.
Indoor Environmental Quality - 15
credits possible
Air quality, thermal comfort, daylight.
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STRUCTUREOFTHEEVERYDAYSTEEL
Materials and Resources
2: Building Re-use
Conservation of existing resource,
no environmental impacts from transportation,
steel buildings more likely than others for re-use,
easy and cheap retro fits for adaptive re-use.
Encourages use of existing materials over new materials
saves cost of added manufacturing energy
High recycled content.
Materials to be manufactured within 500 miles of fabricator.
Raw materials extracted within 500 miles of site (fabricator).
SUSTAINABILITYThe Material Steel |
The Clark Center, Stanford University
Palo Alto, California
Sir Norman Foster