This document discusses best practices for designing steel structures for industrial buildings. It presents various structural forms including rigid frames, portal frames, lattice structures, and suspended structures. These forms provide large open spaces efficiently while allowing for flexibility. Key design factors discussed include loading, fire safety, building physics (thermal insulation), and concept design considerations. National practices for industrial steel building design are also reviewed.

2. Best Practice in Steel Construction - Industrial Buildings
INDUSTRIAL
Contents
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) develops and promotes
the effective use of steel in construction. It is an independent, 01 Introduction
1
membership based organisation. SCI’s research and development
activities cover multi-storey structures, industrial buildings, bridges, civil engineering
and offshore engineering. Activities encompass design guidance on structural steel,
light steel and stainless steels, dynamic performance, fire engineering, sustainable
construction, architectural design, building physics (acoustic and thermal performance),
value engineering, and information technology.
02 Key Design Factors
2
www.steel-sci.org
This publication presents best practice for the design of steel construction
technologies used in industrial buildings, and is aimed at architects and other
members of the design team in the early stages of planning an industrial
building project. It was prepared as one of a series of three under an RFCS
03 Support Structures
dissemination project Euro-Build in Steel (Project n° RFS2-CT-2007-00029).
The project’s objective is to present design information on best practice in steel,
and to take a forward look at the next generation of steel buildings. The other
15
publications cover best design practice in commercial and residential buildings.
The Euro-Build project partners are: 04 Roof Wall Systems
ArcelorMittal
Bouwen met Staal
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Métallique (CTICM) 25
Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung (FOSTA)
Labein Tecnalia
SBI
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) 05 National Practice
Technische Universität Dortmund
Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our knowledge, that all data 33
and information contained herein are accurate to the extent that they relate to either
matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication,
the partners in the Euro-Build project and the reviewers assume no responsibility for
any errors in or misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss or
06 Case Studies
damage arising from or related to their use.
ISBN 978-1-85942-063-8
47
© 2008. The Steel Construction Institute.
This project was carried out with financial support from the European Commission’s
Research Fund for Coal and Steel.
Front cover: Mors company building, Opmeer / Netherlands
Photograph by J. and F. Versnel, Amsterdam
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3. Introduction 01
01 Introduction
Large enclosures or industrial type buildings are very common in business
parks, leisure and sports buildings. Their functionality and architectural
quality are influenced by many factors, e.g. the development plan, the
variety of usages and the desired quality of the building. Steel offers
numerous possibilities to achieve both pleasant and flexible functional use.
For buildings of large enclosure, the In most cases, an industrial building is
economy of the structure plays an not a single structure, but is extended by
important role. For longer spans, the office and administration units or elements
design is optimised in order to minimise such as canopies. These additional
the use of materials, costs and elements can be designed in a way that
installation effort. Increasingly, buildings they fit into the whole building design.
are designed to reduce energy costs and
to achieve a high degree of sustainability. This publication describes the common
forms of industrial buildings and large
Industrial buildings use steel framed enclosures, and their range of application
structures and metallic cladding of all in Europe. Regional differences that may
types. Large open spaces can be created exist depending on practice, regulations
that are efficient, easy to maintain, and and capabilities of the supply chain,
are adaptable as demand changes. are presented in Section 5.
Steel is chosen on economic grounds,
as well as for other aspects such as fire, The same technologies may be extended
architectural quality and sustainability. to a range of building types, including
sports and leisure facilities, halls,
supermarkets and other enclosures.
Figure 1.1 Leisure building using a steel
framed structure
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4. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
02 Key Design Factors
The design of industrial buildings is affected by many factors.
The following general guidance is presented to identify the key
design factors and the benefits offered by steel construction.
Industrial buildings are generally Forms of Industrial Buildings Forms of Industrial
designed as enclosures that provide The most elementary system used for
functional space for internal activities, an industrial building consists of two Buildings
which may involve use of overhead columns and a beam. This configuration
cranes or suspended equipment as can be modified in numerous ways using
well as provision of office space or various types of connections between the Fire Safety
mezzanine floors. beams and columns and for the column
base. The types of structures most
Various structural forms have been commonly used in industrial buildings are
developed over the last 30 years that portal frames with hinged column bases.
optimise the cost of the steel structure Portal frames provide sufficient in-plane
Building Physics
in relation to the space provided. stability, and thus only require bracings
However, in recent years, forms of for out-of-plane stability.
expressive structure have been used
in architectural applications of industrial Figure 2.1 shows a variety of rigid frames Loading
buildings, notably suspended and with fixed (a) or hinged (b) column bases.
tubular structures. Fixed column bases may be considered
when heavy cranes are used, as they Concept Design
A single large hall is the main feature deflect less under horizontal forces.
of most industrial buildings. Hinged column bases have smaller Considerations
The construction and appearance foundations and simple base
of an industrial building provides the connections. In examples (c) and (d),
design engineer with a wide range of the structure is located partly outside the Floors
possible configurations in order to building, and so details concerning the
realise the architectural ideas and the piercing of the building envelope have to
functional requirements. Generally, be designed carefully. The complex detail
an industrial building has a rectangular in these types of structure also serve
floor space, which is extendable in its architectural purposes.
Service Integration
long direction. The design of the building
has to be coordinated with functional In Figure 2.2, different structures consisting
requirements and the energy-saving of beam and columns are presented.
concept, including lighting. Figure 2.2 (a) shows an example of a Lighting
structure without purlins, that is stiffened
The following forms of industrial buildings by diaphragm action in the roof and
represent an overview of the possible bracings in the walls. In Figure 2.2 (b),
architectural and constructional solutions. purlins are used, leading to a simple
Exhibition halls, railway stations, airports design of the roof cladding, which has
and sports arenas tend to be special reduced spans and only serves to
structures. However, the following support vertical loads. The roof is
general issues are restricted to stiffened by plan bracing. The structure
‘standard’ floor plans. without purlins may offer a more pleasant
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5. Key Design Factors 02
(a ) Frame with fixed column bases (b) Frame with hinged
column bases
Figure 2.1 Examples of rigid
(c) Frame with lattice girders (d) Suspended portal frame
framed sructures
(a ) Structure without purlins, roof (b) Structure with purlins
stiffened by trapezoidal sheeting
(c) Lattice girder with purlins (d) Cable suspended
beams with purlins Figure 2.2 Examples of column
and beam structures
appearance when viewed from the inside. individual directional load paths. In addition to the primary steel structure,
Figures 2.2 (c) and (d) show lattice trusses Spatial structures and space trusses are a wide range of secondary components
and cable suspended beams, which may non-directional structures; they can be has also been developed, such as
be beneficial to achieve larger spans, as expanded, but would become heavy for cold formed steel purlins, which also
well as desirable for visual reasons. long spans. Figure 2.4 shows some provide for the stability of the framework
examples of spatial structures. (see Figures 2.6 and 2.7).
Arch structures offer advantageous load-
carrying behaviour as well as having a Portal frames These simple types of structural systems
pleasant visual appearance. In Figure 2.3 Steel portal frames are widely used can also be designed to be architecturally
(a), a building with a three-hinged arch is in most of the European countries more appealing by using curved
shown. Alternatively, the structure can be because they combine structural members, cellular or perforated beams
elevated on columns or integrated in a efficiency with functional application. etc., as illustrated in Figure 2.8.
truss structure, as in Figure 2.3 (d). Various configurations of portal frames
can be designed using the same Innovative structural systems have also
The forms of buildings with primary and structural concept as shown in Figure 2.5. been developed in which portal frames
secondary structural elements described Multi-bay frames can also be designed, are created by moment resisting
above are all directional structures, for as in Figure 2.5 (e) and (f), either using connections using articulations and ties,
which the loads are carried primarily on single or pairs of internal columns. as given in Figure 2.9.
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6. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
(a ) Three-hinge lattice (b) Elevated curved beams
arch with purlins
(c) Arch-structure using space frame (d) Elevated curved trusses
Figure 2.3 Examples of curved
or arch structures
(a ) Girder grid on columns (b) Suspended girder grid
with fixed bases
(c) Space frame on columns (d) Curved space frame on
with fixed bases columns with fixed bases
Figure 2.4 Examples of spatial structures
6˚
6m 6m
25 - 40 m 25 - 30 m
(a) Portal frame - medium span (b) Curved portal frame
6˚
8m 8m
3.5 m
8m 9m 8m 25 m
(c) Portal frame with mezzanine floor (d) Portal frame with overhead crane
6˚
6m
25 m
(e) Two bay portal frame
6˚ 6˚
8m
3.5 m
10 m
(f ) Portal frame with integral office
3˚
10˚
6m
40 m
(g) Mansard portal frame
Figure 2.5 Various forms of portal frames
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7. Key Design Factors 02
Figure 2.6 Linked single bay portal frame
Figure 2.7 Two bay portal frame with
purlins and roof bracing
Kingspan Ltd
Figure 2.8 Curved beams used in a portal
frame structure
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8. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Figure 2.9 Innovative moment-
resisting connections in
an industrial building
Figure 2.10 Installation process for a
modern portal frame
Barrett Steel Buildings Ltd
The installation process of the primary However, columns can also be internal forces are accounted for in the
structure and secondary members, such constructed in a similar way, as illustrated design of the lattice members, when the
as purlins, is generally carried out using in Figure 2.13, in order to provide lattice truss acts to stabilise the building
mobile cranes, as illustrated in Figure 2.10. in‑plane stability. against lateral loads.
Lattice trusses Using lattice structures, a comparatively Suspended structures
Long span industrial buildings can be high stiffness and load bearing resistance By using suspended structures, long-
designed with lattice trusses, using C, H can be achieved while minimising material span buildings with high visual and
or O sections. Lattice trusses tend to be use. Besides the ability to create long architectural quality can be realised.
beam and column structures and are spans, lattice structures are attractive
rarely used in portal frames. Various and enable simple service integration. The division into members that are
configurations of lattice trusses are predominantly subject to either tension
illustrated in Figure 2.11. The two generic A pinned structure is an idealisation used or compression permits the design of
forms are W or N bracing arrangements. in design. Moment-resisting connections lightweight structures. However, structures
In this case, stability is generally provided can be designed using bolted or welded that save on materials use do not
by bracing rather than rigid frame action. connections. The resulting additional necessarily lead to economic solutions.
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9. Key Design Factors 02
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 6˚
8m 8m 8m
25 m 25 m 25 m
(a) Lattice girder - W form (b) Lattice girder - N form (c) Duo-pitch lattice girder
2.5 m 2.5 m
1.5 m 1.0 m 1.0 m
8m 8m 8m
25 m 25 m 20 m
(d) Articulated lattice girder (e) Curved lattice girder (f ) Curved lattice truss and canopy
1.0 m 6˚
2.5 m
6m 6m
20 m 20 m
(g) Articulated bow-string (h) Mono-pitch lattice girder with canopy
Figure 2.11 (Above) Various forms of lattice
truss used in industrial buildings
Figure 2.12 (Left) Lattice truss using
tubular members
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10. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Figure 2.13 Lattice frame using
lattice columns
Particularly in space structures, the joints the following fire safety issues should performing fire tests, three levels of fire
may be very complex and more time be addressed: design calculations:
consuming to construct and install. • Means of escape (number of Level 1: Classification of structural
Therefore, possible applications of this emergency exits, characteristics of components by using tables.
type of structure are industrial buildings exit signs, number of staircases, Level 2: Simplified calculation methods.
that also serve architectural purposes width of doors). Level 3: Advanced calculation methods.
rather than merely functional buildings. • Fire spread (including fire resistance
and reaction to fire). Building physics
Suspended structures can be designed • Smoke and heat exhaust Thermal insulation
by extending columns outside the building ventilation system. The main purpose of thermal insulation
envelope, as illustrated in Figure 2.14. • Active fire fighting measures (hand in industrial buildings is to ensure an
Suspended structures accomplish longer extinguishers, smoke detectors, adequate indoor climate depending
spans, although the suspension cables or sprinklers, plant fire brigade). on the use of the building. During the
rods also penetrate the building envelope, • Access for the fire brigade. heating season, one of the main
and can be obstructive to the use of the functions of the building envelope is
external space. Fire resistance requirements should be to reduce the heat loss by means of
based on the parameters influencing fire effective insulation. This is particularly
Lattice and suspended structures are growth and development, which include: true for buildings with normal indoor
complex and are not covered in detail in • Risk of fire (probability of fire temperatures, such as retail stores,
this Best Practice Guide. occurrence, fire spread, fire duration, exhibition halls and leisure centres,
fire load, severity of fire, etc.). it is true to a lesser extent for
Fire Safety • Ventilation conditions buildings with low indoor temperatures,
Even though the general context of fire (air input, smoke exhaust). such as workshops and warehouses.
safety regulations is the same throughout • Fire compartment
Europe, national differences do exist. (type, size, geometry). For large panels, thermal bridges
For example a single-storey industrial • Type of structural system. and airtightness of joints have a major
building in the Netherlands with a • Evacuation conditions. influence on the energy-balance of
compartment size of 50 x 100 m has no • Safety of rescue team. the building. The thermal insulation
requirements concerning fire resistance, • Risk for neighbouring buildings. has to be placed without gaps and
whereas in France, a fire resistance of • Active fire fighting measures. the building envelope must be sealed
30 minutes is required in many cases, and made airtight at longitudinal and
and in Italy the requirement is possibly as The new generation of European transverse joints.
high as 90 minutes. At the design stage, regulations allow, in addition to
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11. Key Design Factors 02
Figure 2.14 Suspended structure used at
the Renault Factory, Swindon,
UK built in the 1980’s
Architect:Richard Rogers Partnership
In the summer, the role of the building for industrial buildings, it may be are given in Eurocodes EN 1991‑1‑1,
envelope is to reduce the effects of solar necessary to limit values of acoustic 1991‑1‑3 and 1991‑1‑4. Table 2.1 shows
gain on the interior space. The summer emissions from particular machinery. the relevant actions and structural
heat reduction depends on the total area components and Figure 2.15 shows a
and orientation of openings, as well as the In steel framed buildings, acoustic insula- typical load scheme.
effectiveness of solar protection measures. tion is mainly achieved by the construction
of the building envelope. All measures of Vertical loads
Condensation risk acoustic insulation are based on the Self weight
Thermal and moisture protection are following physical principles: Where possible, unit weights of materials
linked closely, because damage arising • Interruption of transmission, e.g. should be checked with manufacturers’
from high local humidity is often the result by using multi-skin constructions. data. The figures given in Table 2.2 may
of missing or improperly installed thermal • Sound absorption, e.g. by using be taken as typical of roofing materials
insulation. On the other hand, lack of perforated sheeting or cassettes. used in the pre-design of a portal frame
moisture protection can lead to • Reducing response by increasing the construction. The self weight of the steel
condensation in the construction, mass of a component. frame is typically 0.2 to 0.4 kN/m2,
which in turn affects the effectiveness expressed over the plan area.
of the thermal insulation. For single sound sources, a local
enclosure or isolation is recommended. Service loads
In multi-skin roof or wall constructions, In order to reach a high level of acoustic Loading due to services will vary greatly,
condensation risk has to be controlled insulation, special sound-absorbing roof depending on the use of the building. In a
by installing a vapour barrier on the inner and wall cladding are effective. For multi- portal frame structure, heavy point loads
skin of the structure. Wall constructions skin panels the level of sound insulation may occur from such items as suspended
that are vapour proof on both sides, can be controlled by varying the acoustic walkways, runway and lifting beams or air
like sandwich panels, prevent diffusion. operating mass. Due to the complexity of handling units. The following loads may
However, the humidity in the internal this issue, it is recommended to consult be used for pre-design:
space also has to be regulated by air the specialist manufacturers. • A nominal load over the whole of
conditioning. Section 4 covers roof and the roof area of between 0.1 and
floor systems. Loading 0.25 kN/m² on plan depending on the
The actions and combinations of actions use of the building, and whether or
Acoustic insulation described in this section should be not a sprinkler system is provided.
In all European countries, minimum considered in the design of a single-
requirements exist on the sound storey industrial building using a steel Imposed load on roofs
insulation of buildings. In addition, structure. Imposed, snow and wind loads EN 1991-1-1 and -3 define characteristic
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12. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
wind uplift
snow load
dead load sway
imperfection
sway
imperfection
wind wind
pressure suction
Frame span
Figure 2.15 Loading scheme on
a portal frame Action Applied to
Self-weight Cladding, purlins, frames, foundation
Snow Cladding, purlins, frames, foundation
Concentrated snow Cladding, purlins, (frames), foundation
Wind Cladding, purlins, frames, foundation
Wind (increase on single element) Cladding, purlins, fixings
Wind (peak undertow) Cladding, purlins, (fixings)
Thermal actions Envelope, global structure
Service loads Depends on specification: roofing, purlins, frames
Crane loads Crane rails, frame
Dynamic loads Global structure (Depends on building use and locality)
Second order effects
Wall bracings, columns
Table 2.1 Actions and relevant (Sway imperfections)
structural components
Material Weight (kN/m²)
Steel roof sheeting (single skin) 0.07 - 0.20
Aluminium roof sheeting (single skin) 0.04
Insulation (boards, per 25 mm thickness) 0.07
Insulation (glass fibre, per 100 mm thickness) 0.01
Liner trays (0.4 mm – 0.7 mm thickness) 0.04 - 0.07
Composite panels (40 mm – 100 mm thickness) 0.10 - 0.15
Purlins (distributed over the roof area) 0.03
Steel decking 0.20
Three layers of felt with chippings 0.29
Slates 0.40 / 0.50
Tiling (clay or plain concrete) 0.60 - 0.80
Tiling (concrete interlocking) 0.50 - 0.80
Table 2.2 Typical weights of Timber battens (including timber rafters) 0.10
roofing materials
10 EURO-BUILD in Steel

13. Key Design Factors 02
values of various types of imposed Wind uplift forces on cladding can In the first instance, it is necessary to
loads on roofs: be relatively high at the corner of the identify the size of the enclosure and to
• A minimum load of 0.6 kN/m² (on plan) building and at the eaves and ridge. develop a structural scheme, which will
for roof slopes less than 30° is applied, In these areas, it may be necessary provide this functional space taking into
where no access other than for cleaning to reduce the spacing of the purlins account all the above considerations.
and maintenance is intended. and side rails. The importance of each of these conside-
• A concentrated load of 0.9 kN - this rations depends on the type of building.
will only affect the sheeting design. Imperfections For example, the requirements concerning
• A uniformly distributed load due to Equivalent horizontal forces have to a distribution centre will be different from
snow over the complete roof area. be considered due to geometrical and those of a manufacturing unit.
The value of the load depends on the structural imperfections. According to
building’s location and height above EN 1993‑1‑1 for frames sensitive to To develop an effective concept design,
sea level. If multi-bay portal frames buckling in a sway mode, the effect of it is necessary to review these conside-
with roof slopes are used, the effect of imperfections should be allowed for in rations based on their importance,
concentrated snow loads in the frame analysis by means of an equivalent depending on the type of building.
valleys has to be coonsidered. imperfection in the form of: Table 2.3 presents a matrix which
• A non-uniform load caused by snow • initial sway deflections; and / or relates the importance of each
drifting across the roof due to wind • individual bow imperfections consideration to particular types of
blowing across the ridge of the of members. industrial buildings. Note that this
building and depositing more snow matrix is only indicative, as each
on the leeward side. This is only Other horizontal loads project will be different. However, the
considered for slopes greater than Depending on the project, additional matrix can serve as a general aid.
15° and will not therefore apply to horizontal loading may have to be
most industrial buildings. considered, such as earth pressure, Compartmentation mixed use
force due to operation of cranes, Increasingly, larger industrial buildings
Horizontal loads accidental actions and seismic action. are designed for mixed use, i.e. in most
Wind loading cases integrated office space and / or
Wind actions are given by EN 1991‑1‑4. Concept design staff rooms for the employees are
Wind loading rarely determines the size considerations provided. There are different possible
of members in low-rise single span portal General issues locations for these additional spaces
frames where the height : span ratio is Prior to the detailed design of an industrial and uses, as shown in Figure 2.16:
less than 1:4. Therefore, wind loading building, it is essential to consider many • For single-storey industrial buidings,
can usually be ignored for preliminary aspects such as: creation of separate space inside
design of portal frames, unless the • Space optimization. the building and possibly two
height-span ratio is large, or if the • Speed of construction. storeys high, separated by
dynamic pressure is high. Combined • Access and security. internal walls.
wind and snow loading is often • Flexibility of use. • In an external building, directly
critical in this case. • Environmental performance. connected to the hall itself.
• Standardization of components. • For two-storey industrial buildings,
However, in two span and other multi- • Infrastructure of supply. partly occupying the upper floor.
span portal frames, combined wind • Service integration.
and vertical load may often determine • Landscaping. This leads to special concept design
the sizes of the members, when alternate • Aesthetics and visual impact. requirements concerning the support
internal columns are omitted. The • Thermal performance and structure and the building physics
magnitude of the wind loading can air-tightness. performance. If the office area is
determine which type of verification • Acoustic insulation. situated on the upper storey of the
has to be provided. If large horizontal • Weather-tightness. industrial building, it may be designed
deflections at the eaves occur in • Fire safety. as a separate structure enclosed by
combination with high axial forces, • Design life. the structure of the building. In this case,
then second order effects have to be • Sustainability considerations. floor systems from commercial buildings
considered in the verification procedure. • End of life and re-use. can be used, often based on composite
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14. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Considerations for concept design
Thermal performance and air tightness
Standardization of components
Aesthetics and visual impact
Environmental performance
Flexibility of use and space
Specialist infra structure
Speed of construction
End of life and reuse
Access and Security
Services integration
Space optimization
Weather tightness
Acoustic isolation
Sustainability
Landscaping
Design life
Type of single-storey
industrial buildings
High bay warehouses               
Industrial manufacturing
facilities             
Distribution centres               
Retail superstores              
Storage / cold storage             
Small scale fabrication
facilities            
Office and light
manufacturing               
Processing plants             
Leisure centres               
Sports hall complexes              
Exhibition halls               
Aircraft or maintenance
hangars                
Legend No tick = Not important  = important  = very important
Table 2.3 Important design factors for industrial buildings
structures, e.g. integrated floor beams. the design, even if there is no internal located on the top floor of the building,
Another possible solution is to attach the office space. In order to prevent fire spread, additional escape routes are required and
office to the main structure. This requires the compartment size is limited to a active fire fighting measures have to be
particular attention to be paid to the stabili- certain value. Therefore fire walls have to considered. Fire-spread has to be
sation of the combined parts of the building. be provided for separation and should prevented from one compartment to
ensure at least 60 and often 90 minutes another, which can be achieved, for
Apart from structural issues, special fire resistance. This is even more vital if example by a composite slab between
attention has to be paid to: hazardous goods are stored in the building. the office and industrial space.
Fire protection Because the office is designed for use by Thermal insulation
For large industrial buildings, fire compart- a larger number of people, fire safety As for fire safety, offices also have
mentation may play an important role in demands are stricter. If the offices are higher requirements on thermal insulation.
12 EURO-BUILD in Steel

15. Key Design Factors 02
office office
office hall
hall hall
(a) inside (b) outside (c) on top floor Figure 2.16 Possible location of an office
attached to an industrial building
In industrial buildings used for storage is required, typically using two layers of ventilation depends on the size and
purposes of non-sensitive goods, thermal synthetic material. orientation of the building. Roof vents
insulation may not be required. In offices, are a common option for natural
however, a high level of comfort is Service integration ventilation in buildings without suitably
needed, which makes thermal insulation For industrial buildings, special large openings, however these need to
necessary. Therefore the interfaces requirements for building services are be carefully positioned so as to maximize
between the cold and the warm often defined, which may be necessary their performance. Hybrid ventilation
compartments have to be designed to for the operation of machines and systems are now popular in industrial
provide adequate insulation. manufacturing lines. buildings. They use predominantly
natural ventilation, but with mechanically
Acoustic performance The service integration should be taken driven fans to improve predictability of
Especially in industrial buildings with into account in the early planning stages. performance over a wider range of
noise-intensive production processes, In particular, the position and size of weather conditions.
a strict separation between the production ducts should be coordinated with the
unit and the office areas has to be realised. structure and provisions for natural lighting. Mechanical Heat and Ventilation
This may require special measures for Recovery (MHVR) systems use the heat
acoustic insulation, depending on the The use of structural systems, such as from the exiting warm stale air to heat up
production processes. cellular beams and trusses, can facilitate the fresh cool air as it enters the building.
integration of services and help to The warm air is vented out of the building
Floors achieve a coherent appearance alongside the incoming fresh air, allowing
In most cases, the floors for industrial of the building. heat transfer from the exiting to the
buildings are used for vehicles or incoming air. Although this heat transfer
heavy machinery. They are designed The design of the servicing machinery will never be 100% efficient, the use of
to support heavy loads and have to and rooms can be of major importance MHVR systems can significantly reduce
be ’flat’. Concentrated loads due to in industrial buildings. Centralisation of the amount of energy required to warm
vehicles, machines, racking and the building services can offer the the fresh air to a comfortable level.
containers have to be considered, advantage of easy maintenance.
depending on the application. Figure 2.17 shows different possible Further issues which may need
solutions of the positioning of the consideration in services design include:
Most industrial buildings have a concrete service rooms. • The possible affect of elements for
floor with a minimum thickness of solar protection on air exchange.
150 mm on top of a layer of sand or Natural ventilation reduces the reliance • Odour extraction.
gravel, which is also at least 150 mm on air conditioning systems, which in turn • Control of humidity.
thick. For large floor areas, a sliding layer means a reduction in the building’s CO2 • Control of airtightness.
between the base layer and the concrete emissions. The effectiveness of natural • Acoustic insulation.
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16. 02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Lighting
Requirements for the lighting of industrial
buildings depend on the type of use.
The concept and arrangement of
openings to provide natural lighting
permit diversity in architectural design.
Rooflights and gable glazed roofs are
common, along with lightbands in the
façade (Figure 2.18). Openings for
natural lighting can serve as smoke and (a) separate servicing rooms (b) servicing rooms on the roof
heat outlets in case of fire.
Well-designed natural daylighting can
have a significant impact on a building’s
carbon emissions. However, too much
natural daylighting can result in excessive
solar gain in the summer, leading to
overheating, and increased heat loss
through the envelope in the winter.
The decision to utilise natural daylight (c) internal servicing rooms (d) servicing rooms in the basement
within a building and the type of day-
lighting selected have important implica-
tions for the overall building design.
(a) Uniformly distributed rooflights (b) Light-bands in façade
Figure 2.17 (Top right) Possible
arrangements of the servicing
rooms and service routes
(c) Linear rooflights (d) Shed bands in roof
Figure 2.18 (Right) Examples of ways of
providing natural lighting
in industrial buildings
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17. Support Structures 03
03 Support Structures
This section describes common systems used for main support
structures in industrial buildings. The characteristics of portal frames
as well as column and beam structures are described, together with
information on secondary components and connections.
Portal frame structures A number of types of structure can be Portal frame structures
Portal frame buildings are generally low- classified broadly as portal frames.
rise structures, comprising columns and The information given with regard to
horizontal or sloping rafters, connected spans, roof pitch, etc. is typical of the
by moment-resisting connections. forms of construction that are illustrated.
Column and beam
structures
Portal frames with hinged column bases Steel sections used in portal frame
are generally preferred as they lead to structures with spans of 12 m to 30 m
smaller foundation sizes in comparison to are usually hot rolled sections and are Secondary components
fixed bases. Furthermore, fixed columns specified in grades S235, S275 or even and bracing
require more expensive connection S355 steel. Use of high-strength steel is
details and therefore are predominately rarely economic in structures where
used only if high horizontal forces have to serviceability (i.e. deflection) or stability
be resisted. However, pinned columns criteria may control the design. Connections
have the disadvantage of leading to
slightly heavier steel weights due to the Frames designed using plastic
lower stiffness of the frame to both global analysis offer greater economy,
vertical and horizontal forces. although elastic global analysis is
preferred in some countries.
This form of rigid frame structure is stable Where plastic analysis is used,
in its own plane and provides a clear the member proportions must be
span that is unobstructed by bracing. appropriate for the development
Stability is achieved by rigid frame action of plastic bending resistance.
provided by continuity at the connections
and this is usually achieved by use of Types of steel portal frames
haunches at the eaves. Pitched roof portal frame
One of the most common structures for
Out-of-plane stability in most cases has industrial buildings is the single-span
to be provided by additional elements, symmetrical portal frame, as shown in
such as tubular braces and purlins Figure 3.2. The following characteristics
(Figure 3.1). By using profiled sheeting, emerged as the most economical and
the stiffening of the roof can be obtained can therefore be seen as a basis at an
by stressed skin diaphragm action early design stage:
without additional bracing. Shear walls, • Span between 15 m and 50 m
cores and the use of fixed ended (25 to 35 m is the most efficient).
columns can also provide out‑of‑plane • Eaves height between 5 and 10 m
restraint to the portal frames. (5 to 6 m is the most efficient).
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18. 03 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Stiffening in two directions by using Stiffening in longitudinal direction by using
bracings in roof and walls as well as in gable bracings in roof and walls with frame in gable
wall (roof cladding also provides in-place stiffness) wall for possible further expansion
Stiffening in longitudinal direction by using Stiffening in longitudinal direction by using
bracings in roof and special bracings for bracings in roof and portal frame in wall for
integration of a door in the wall integration of a door
Figure 3.1 Examples of out-of plane
bracing of a portal frame
• Roof pitch between 5° and 10° It can be designed to stabilise the frame. Where the crane is of relatively low
(6° is commonly adopted). Often the internal floor requires additional capacity (up to about 20 tonnes),
• Frame spacing between 5 m and fire protection. brackets can be fixed to the columns
8 m (the greater spacings being to support the crane (see Figure 3.5).
associated with the longer span Portal frame with Use of a tie member between haunches
portal frames). external mezzanine across the building or fixed column bases
• Haunches in the rafters at the eaves Offices may be located externally to the may be necessary to reduce the relative
and if necessary at the apex. portal frame, creating an asymmetric eaves deflection. The outward movement
portal structure, as shown in Figure 3.4. of the frame at crane rail level may be of
Table 3.1 can be used as an aid for The main advantage of this framework is critical importance to the functioning of
pre-design of single span portal frames. that large columns and haunches do not the crane.
The use of haunches at the eaves and obstruct the office space. Generally, this
apex both reduces the required depth of additional structure depends on the portal For heavy cranes, it is appropriate to
rafter and achieves an efficient moment frame for its stability. support the crane rails on additional
connection at these points. Often the columns, which may be tied to the portal
haunch is cut from the same size of Crane portal frame with frame columns by bracing in order to
section as the rafter. column brackets provide stability.
Cranes, if needed, have an important
Portal frame with a influence on the design and the Propped portal frame
mezzanine floor dimensions of portal frames. Where the span of a portal frame is
Office accommodation is often provided They create additional vertical loads greater than 30 m, and there is no need
within a portal frame structure using as well as considerable horizontal forces, to provide a clear span, a propped portal
a mezzanine floor (see Figure 3.3), which influence the size of the column frame (see Figure 3.6) can reduce the
which may be partial or full width. section, in particular. rafter size and also the horizontal forces
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19. Support Structures 03
Eaves Frame Required
Snow load Span Roof pitch
height spacing cross‑section
[kN/m²] [m] [m] [°] [m] Column Rafter
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 600 IPE 550
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 500 IPE 500
0.75 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 450 IPE 450
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 360 IPE 360
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 IPE 300
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 HEA 500 HEA 500
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 600 IPE 550
1.20 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 500 IPE 500
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 450 IPE 450
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 360 IPE 360
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 HEA 650 HEA 650
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 HEA 550 HEA 550
2.00 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 600 HEA 600
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 500 IPE 500
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 400 IPE 400 Table 3.1 Pre-design table
for portal frames
Roof pitch Apex
Rafter
Eaves
Apex haunch
Eaves haunch
Column
Figure 3.2 Single span symmetrical portal
frame
Mezzanine
Figure 3.3 Portal frame with internal
mezzanine floor
Mezzanine
Figure 3.4 Portal frame with external
mezzanine floor
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20. 03 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Column
bracket
Figure 3.5 Portal frame with column
brackets
Possible location
* of out of plane restraint
Prop
Clear internal
height
Figure 3.6 Propped portal frame
at the bases of the columns, thus leading applications. The rafter can be curved wall is not provided by a portal frame,
to savings in both steelwork and to a radius by cold bending. For spans bracings or rigid panels are needed,
foundation costs. greater than 16 m, splices may be required as shown in Figure 3.11.
in the rafter because of limitations of
This type of frame is sometimes referred transport. For architectural reasons, Column beam structures
to as a ‘single span propped portal’, but it these splices may be designed to be Column and beam structures require an
acts as a two-span portal frame in terms visually unobtrusive. independent bracing system in both
of the behaviour of the beam. directions. The beams may be I‑sections
Alternatively, where the roof must be or lattice trusses.
Tied portal frame curved but the frame need not be curved,
In a tied portal frame (see Figure 3.7), the rafter can be fabricated as a series of Column beam structures with
the horizontal movements of the eaves straight elements. hinged column bases
and the moments in the columns are For simple beam and column structures,
reduced, at the cost of a reduction in the Cellular portal frame the columns are loaded mainly in com-
clear height. For roof slopes of less than Cellular beams are commonly used pression which leads to smaller columns.
15°, large forces will develop in the in portal frames which have curved Compared to a portal frame, the internal
rafters and the tie. rafters (see Figure 3.10 and Figure 2.9). moments in the beam are greater,
Where splices are required in the rafter leading to larger steel sections. Since
Mansard portal frame for transport, these should be detailed to pinned connections are less complex
A mansard portal frame consists of a preserve the architectural features for this than moment resisting connections,
series of rafters and haunches (as in form of construction. fabrication costs can be reduced. Table
Figure 3.8). It may be used where a large 3.2 gives some indicative column and
clear span is required but the eaves Gable wall frames beam sizes for a hinged column base.
height of the building has to be minimised. Gable wall frames are located at the ends
A tied mansard may be an economic of the building and may comprise posts For this type of support structure,
solution where there is a need to restrict and simply-supported rafters rather than bracings in both directions are required
eaves spread. a full-span portal frame (see Figure 3.11). in the roof as well as in the walls in order
If the building is to be extended later, to provide stability for horizontal loads.
Curved rafter portal frame a portal frame of the same size as the For that reason, it is often used for
Curved rafter portals (see Figure 3.9 and internal frames should be provided. predominantly enclosed halls (i.e. no
Figure 2.8) are often used for architectural In cases in which the stability of the gable substantial openings). This fact also has
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21. Support Structures 03
Hangers may be
required on long spans
Tie
Figure 3.7 Tied portal frame
Figure 3.8 Mansard portal frame
Figure 3.9 Curved rafter portal frame
Figure 3.10 Cellular beam used in
portal frame
Industrial door
Gable
bracing
Finished
floor level
Personnel door
Figure 3.11 End gables in a frame structure
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22. 03 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Eaves Frame Required
Snow load Span Roof pitch
height spacing cross‑section
[kN/m²] [m] [m] [°] [m] Column Beam
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 270 HEA 550
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 270 IPE 600
0.75 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 240 IPE 500
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 200 IPE 360
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 160 IPE 300
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 700
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 550
1.20 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 270 IPE 550
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 220 IPE 450
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 180 IPE 360
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 330 HEA 900
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 700
2.00 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 500
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 240 IPE 500
Table 3.2 Pre-design table for column and 12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 200 IPE 450
beam structures
Sheet thickness 1.5 - 3 mm
H
H
Height H 175 mm 195 mm 210 mm 240 mm 260 mm
Z-shape
Sheet thickness 1.5 - 4 mm
max. 350 mm
Height H
min. 80 mm
0
min. 30 mm depending on H max. 10 0 mm
C-shape
Sheet thickness 1.5 - 4 mm
max. 350 mm
Height H
min. 80 mm
0
min. 30 mm depending on H max. 10 0 mm
Figure 3.12 Cold-formed sections typically U-shape
used for purlins
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23. Support Structures 03
to be taken into account during stiffness acts in both directions, and the Purlins
the installation stage by providing structure is stable after installation Purlins transfer the forces from the
temporary bracings. without additional bracing. roof cladding to the primary structural
elements, i.e. rafters. Furthermore, they
Column beam structures with Secondary components can act as compression members as part
fixed column bases bracing of the bracing system and provide limited
When using fixed-ended columns, A typical steel portal frame structure with restraint against lateral torsional buckling
larger foundations are required as a its secondary components is shown in of the rafter. For frame spacings up to
result of the additional bending moment. Figure 3.14. Similar systems are provided 7 m, it can be economic to span the
As the columns have low axial forces, for beam and column splices. profiled sheeting between the rafters
the required size of the foundation without the use of purlins. Larger frame
will be large and possibly uneconomic. The bracing systems shown in Figure 3.1 spacings reduce the number of primary
Large columns for industrial buildings are generally achieved by bracing structural elements and foundations,
with a crane may be designed as (usually circular members) in the plane but require the use of heavier purlins.
lattice structures. of the roof or wall. Purlins and side In industrial buildings, hot-rolled
rails support the roof and wall cladding, I‑sections as well as cold-formed profiles
Compared to portal frames, internal and stabilise the steel framework against with Z-, C‑, U- or custom-made shapes
moments in the beams and lateral lateral buckling. Alternatively, panels are used, as shown in Figure 3.12.
deformations are greater. The providing shear stiffness or steel profiled
advantages of this system are its sheeting used in diaphragm action When cold-formed purlins are used,
insensitivity to settlement and, in the can be used to provide sufficient out-of- they are usually located at spacings
case of the fixed supports, the base plane stability. of approximately 1.5 m to 2.5 m.
(a) Support for continuous (b) Support for single-span
hot-rolled purlin hot-rolled purlin
(c) Support for continuous (d) Support for continuous cold-formed
cold-formed Z-shaped purlin custom-shaped purlin Figure 3.13 Possible solutions for
purlin-rafter connections
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24. 03 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Purlins
Cold rolled Rafter
eaves beam
5
Apex haunch
Side 4
rails 3
1 Eaves haunch
Positions of restraint
2 to inner flange of Column
column and rafter
Dado wall Base plate
FFL
Tie rod (optional
but not common)
Foundation
(a) Cross-section showing the portal frame and its restraints
Cold rolled
purlins
Sag bars if
necessary
Cold-rolled
eaves beam
Eaves beam
strut
Plan
bracing
(b) Roof steelwork plan
Sag rod
Side rails Diagonal
ties
Side wall
bracing
Figure 3.14 Overview of secondary
structural components in (c) Side elevation
a portal frame structure
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25. Support Structures 03
Tension flange welds
Rib (tension) stiffener
(if needed)
hot-rolled I-section
Eaves haunch
Bolts Grade 8.8 or 10.9
End-plate
Compression stiffener (if needed)
hot-rolled I-section
Figure 3.15 Typical eaves connections
in a portal frame
The spacing between the purlins is In order to reduce manufacturing costs,
reduced in zones of higher wind and it is preferable to design the eaves
snow load, and where stability of the connection without the use of stiffeners.
rafter is required, e.g. close to the eaves In some cases, the effects of the reduced
and valley. Often manufacturers provide joint stiffness on the global structural
approved solutions for the connections to behaviour may have to be considered,
the rafter section using pre-fabricated i.e. effects on the internal forces and
steel plates, as shown in Figure 3.13. deflections. EN 1993‑1‑8 provides a
design procedure, which takes these
Connections ‘semi-rigid’ effects into account.
The three major connections in a single
bay portal frame are those at the eaves, The apex connection is often designed
the apex and the column base. similarly, see Figure 3.16. If the span of
the frame does not exceed transportation
For the eaves, bolted connections are limits (about 16 m), the on-site apex con-
mostly used of the form shown in nection can be avoided, thus saving costs.
Figure 3.15. A haunch can be created
by welding a ‘cutting’ to the rafter to The base of the column is often kept simple
increase its depth locally and to make with larger tolerances in order to facilitate
the connection design more efficient. the interface between the concrete and
The ‘cutting’ is often made from the steelwork. Typical details are presented
same steel section as the rafter. in Figure 3.17. Pinned connections are
often preferred in order to minimize
In some cases, the column and the foundation sizes although stability during
haunched part of the beam are construction must be considered.
constructed as one unit, and the High horizontal forces may require the
constant depth part of the beam is use of fixed based connections.
bolted using an end plate connection.
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26. 03 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
Bolts Grade 8.8 or 10.9 End-plates
hot-rolled rafter section
Figure 3.16 (Right) Typical apex
connections in a portal frame
Apex haunch
Figure 3.17 (Below) Typical examples (if needed)
of nominally pinned column
bases in a portal frame
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27. Roof Wall Systems 04
04 Roof Wall Systems
This section describes common systems for roofing and cladding that
serve as the building envelope and may at the same time provide stability
for the main support structure. Also, mainly architectural aspects for
industrial building such as service integration and lighting are discussed.
Roof systems Generally steel sheeting is made of Roof systems
There are a number of proprietary types galvanised steel grades S280G, S320G
of cladding that may be used in industrial or S275G to EN 10326. Due to the wide
buildings. These tend to fall into some range of product forms, no standard
broad categories, which are described in dimensions for sheeting exist, although Wall systems
the following sections. there are strong similarities between
products and shapes. The steel sheets
Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting are usually between 0.50 and 1.50 mm
Single-skin sheeting is widely used in thick (including galvanisation).
agricultural and industrial structures
where no insulation is required. It can Double skin system
generally be used on roof slopes down Double skin or built-up roof systems
to as low as 4° provided that the laps usually use a steel liner tray that is
and sealants are as recommended by fastened to the purlins, followed by a
the manufacturers for shallow slopes. spacing system (plastic ferrule and
The sheeting is fixed directly to the spacer or rail and bracket spacer),
purlins and side rails, and provides insulation and an outer sheet. Because
positive restraint (see Figure 4.1). the connection between the outer and
In some cases, insulation is suspended inner sheets may not be sufficiently stiff,
directly beneath the sheeting. the liner tray and fixings must be chosen
Figure 4.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
EURO-BUILD in Steel 25