- Greek philosophy began with the Pre-Socratic period, including early philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes who attempted to explain the universe through singular elements like water or air.
- Additional early philosophers included Heraclitus, who believed in constant change, and the atomists Leucippus and Democritus, who were the first to theorize that matter was made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
- Socrates disagreed with the Sophists' teachings and used questioning to help students discover ethical truths for themselves, influencing both Plato and Aristotle, two of the most important Greek philosophers.
Epicureanism is a school of thought in ancient Greek philosophy founded by Epicurus of Samos. It holds the belief that the best life is one of long-term pleasure that results from moderation.
Epicureanism is a school of thought in ancient Greek philosophy founded by Epicurus of Samos. It holds the belief that the best life is one of long-term pleasure that results from moderation.
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy.docxsleeperharwell
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy
Chapter 1
Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy
Copyright by Paul Herrick, 2020. For class use only. Not for distribution. The chapters you are about to read online this quarter are excerpted from a textbook that will be published later this year. This chapter: 28 pages of reading.
Part 1. How Philosophy Began
1.1 From Mythos to Logos
In all ages of recorded history, human beings around the world have asked fundamental questions. Why are we here? Why does the universe exist? What is truth? How do we distinguish knowledge from opinion, reality from illusion, right from wrong? What is justice? Universal questions like these are fundamental in the sense that the answers we give to many other questions depend on the answers we have already given to these. The “fundamental questions of life,” as they are sometimes called, are important because the answers we give form the foundation of our worldview—our general understanding of the universe and our role within it. And whether we realize it or not, the choices we make in life all reflect, to one degree or another, our worldview.
At the beginning of the sixth century BC, most people around the world turned to their society’s myths (from the Greek root mythos) for answers to the fundamental questions of life. The ancient myths presented authoritative answers in the form of colorful, easily memorized stories that could be handed down orally from generation to generation. Here are three, from ancient Egypt, China, and Africa, respectively.
· A god named Khnemu, depicted as a man with a ram’s head, built an egg. When the egg hatched, the sun popped out. Khnemu then “sculpted the first man on a potter’s wheel.” This is the origin of man.[endnoteRef:2] [2: . “Khnemu (Khnum),” Ancient Egypt: The Mythology, last updated April 11, 2017, http://www.egyptianmyths.net/khnemu.htm.]
· In the beginning “there was darkness everywhere, and Chaos ruled. Within the darkness there formed an egg, and inside the egg the giant Pangu came into being. For aeons, safely inside the egg, Pangu slept and grew. When he had grown to a gigantic size he stretched out his huge limbs and broke the egg. The lighter parts of the egg floated upwards to form the heavens and the denser parts sank downwards, to become the earth. And so was formed earth and sky, Yin and Yang.”[endnoteRef:3] [3: . “Chinese Myths: Pangu and the Creation of the World,” Living Myths, last updated April 12, 2016, http://www.livingmyths.com/Chinese.htm.]
· In the beginning there was only darkness, water, and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving land. Still in pain, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals: the leopard, the crocodile, the turtle, and, finally, some men. This is the origin of man.[endnoteRef:4] [4: . “African Creation Myths,” last modified Jul.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
5. One of the most unique and wonderful
of Greek inventions was philosophy
Philosophy was the special way
Greeks attempted to make sense out
of the world, in a non-religious way
This means that rather than using
myths and stories to understand the
world, they would use their intelligence
and reasoning skills
6. “Philo-” means love, and
“-sophia” means wisdom, so
the word “philosophy” really
means “the love of wisdom.”
Basically, philosophy is
thinking about the world and
making sense out of it.
7. Early Greeks began asking the
question, “What exists?”
They questioned the world
around them and tried to make
sense out of what they saw.
Other, different philosophies were
developed, each of which tried to
make sense out of the world.
9. The earliest of Greek
philosophers
answer the
tried to
question of
what exists by coming up
with a number of different
ideas
10. Four Elements
Thales, who lived around 600
BC (nearly 2,600 years ago)
determined that everything
was made up of water, which
he thought was the single
primal element
11. • Anaximander,come up
with his own idea that
everything was made
up of an element he
called the
“boundless,” which
was divided up into
hot and cold, and wet
and dry.
12. It was these early ideas that
helped later philosophers to
the entire
to the
classify
according
elements: Earth, Air,
world
four
Fire,
and Water
13. Mathematics :
Pythagoras, around 530
BC, saw the key to all of
existence in mathematics,
and
entire
thought
world
that the
could be
explained with numbers.
Developed an advanced
system of geometry that
we still use today (people
still study the
Pythagorean Theorem in
geometry).
14. Around 450
Atoms
BC,
philosophers, Leucippus
there were two
and
Democritus, both of whom thought that
the world was made up of little particles
that were so small we couldn’t even see
them. They called these particles atoms,
and thought that they made up everything
in the universe.
Eventually, modern science would prove
that these atomic theories were right,
even though they were developed
thousands of years ago
15. TheSophists
Around 450 BC, philosophers known as Sophists
thought that “man is the measure” of everything.
In other words, they thought that the only things
that matter are human beings and the way we
see the world.
Taught their students that they should use their
reason, or intelligence, in order to succeed in life.
Sophists also believed that there is an important
difference between things that are man-made
versus things that are naturally made, and said
that natural products were better than man-made
ones
16. Socrates
Socrates, who lived from 469-399 BC, was one of the
most influential philosophers of all time
He disagreed with the sophists because they charged
their students money, but didn’t teach them how to be
ethical
Being ethical means acting in a morally responsible
manner, like doing the right thing, no matter what.
Socrates was one of the first philosophers to ask the
question “What is right and wrong?”
His teaching technique, later called the Socratic
Method, involved asking his students questions and
correcting them, so that they would come up with the
right answers
17. Historical Period on Philosophy
1. Pre-Socratic Period
The Pre-Socratic philosophers
*The world’s first official Philosophers(Pioneer)
*shifted from traditional mythological explanations( rejected
the gods/ goddess and monsters) to natural law.
*They started to ask questions like:
Where did everything come
from? why is there such
variety, and
how can nature be described mathematically?
*They tended to look for universal principles to explain the whole
of Nature.
*Monists( everything can be explained by single element)
*The ideas and philosophies of the Pre-Socratic philosophers
were written in stone.
18. 1.1 The Milesian School
The Pre-Socratic school of philosophy founded on
the 6th Century B.C. in the Ionian town of Miletus (a
Greek colony on the Aegean coast of Anatolia in
modern Turkey).
The major philosophers included under this
label are Thales, Anaximander and
Anaximenes.
Thales of Miletus:
Designated as the first Philosopher
He is regarded as the founder of natural philosophy.
He proposed that everything is composed of WATER,
as the source of life, indispensible, necessity for
survival. Water and other liquidities were tough force of
nature.
19. Anaximander
A younger contemporary of Thales
He believed that all those elements and more comprised
a common element he called APEIRON or the
BOUNDLESS. All things arise from apeiron and all things
return to apeiron.
Anaximander placed the Earth at the center of a universe
composed of hollow, concentric wheels filled with fire, and
pierced by holes at various intervals (which appear as the
sun, the moon and the stars);
Anaximenes
A pupil of Anaximander
Air is the root of all
things
Anaximeness saw the sun and the moon as flat disks
travelling
20. 1.2 The Ephesian School
is a Greek Pre-Socratic school of philosophy of the 5th
Century B.C., it refers to the ideas of just one man,
Heraclitus a native of Ephesus in the Greek
colony of Ionia.
his view was that the world witnesses constant change, rather than no
change at all. The dictum: "everything is in a state of flux",(change) . Life is
never ending sequence of birth and death, creation and destruction; cycle of
combustibility
The transformation of material from one state into another does not happen
by accident, he held, but rather within certain limits and within certain time and
according to law or "logos", according to which all things are one. He
considered that the basis of all the universe is an ever-living fire (although this
is used more as a symbol of change and process, rather than actual fire), so
that the world itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements,
symbolized by fire.
21. 1.3 Pluralism
is a Greek Pre-Socratic school of philosophy of the 5th
Century B.C., consisting of three major philosophers:
Anaxagoras, Archelaus (5th Century B.C.) and Empedocles.
Pluralism as a philosophical doctrine is a concept used many different ways,
but, in general terms, it is the theory that there is more than one basic
substance or principle, whether it be the constitution of the universe, of the
mind and body, the sources of truth, etc .
Archelaus, a student of Anaxagoras , asserted
that air and infinity are the principles of all things, that primitive Matter is
air mingled with Mind, and that the principle of motion was the separation of
hot from cold, from which he endeavored to explain the formation of the
Earth and the creation of animals and humans.
22. Empedocles (c. 490 - 430 B.C.)
was a Pre-Socratic Greek
philosopher, usually considered a
member of the poorly- defined
Pluralist school in that he was
eclectic in his thinking and combined
much that had been suggested by
others.
He is perhaps best known as the
originator of the cosmogenic
theory of the four classical
elements of the ancient world:
earth, air, fire and water, which
became the standard dogma for
much of the next two thousand
years.
Empedocles believed that the
organic universe sprang from
spontaneous aggregations
of parts, and only in those
rare cases where the parts
were found to be adapted to
each other, did the complex
structures last. He assumed a
cyclical universe, whereby
the elements would return to
the harmony of the sphere in
preparation for the next period
of the universe.
23. 1.4 Pythagoreanism
is an early Pre-Socratic Greek school of philosophy based around
the metaphysical beliefs of Pythagoras and his followers.
Pythagoras proposed that life was a numbersgame.
He taught that everything could be explain through mathematical theorems and
formulae. Though Pythagorean thought was dominated by mathematics on the
other hand it was also profoundly mystical.
He also believe in reincarnation and his follower were vegetarian. They believe
in metempsychosis (the transmigration of the soul and
its reincarnation after death)
He also subscribed to the views of another of his teachers,
Anaximander, that the ultimate substance of things is what he
described as "apeiron" (variously described as "the
boundless" or "the undefined infinite")
24. Protagoras
He is regarded as the first
sophist Man is the
measure of all things
was the famous credo of
Protagoras.
It is actually an extreme case of
relativism. It is a dismissal of Big
picture of Universal Truth. Where
what is true for me may not be true
to you and vice versa. Anything
goes was the natural devolution of
such principle. If its feel good . Do it
. If it gets you ahead even at the
expense of another, go for it
anyway.
His being apathetic view toward gods cause him to be charge of
impiety and subsequent death sentence
25. 1.6 Atomism
is a Pre-Socratic school of thought from ancient Greece, establishedin
the late 5th Century B.C. by Leucippus of Miletus (5th Century B.C.) and
his more famous student, Democritus .
Atomism is the theory that all of reality and all the objects in
the universe are composed of very
small, indivisible and indestructible building blocks known
as atoms (from the Greek "atomos", meaning "uncuttable").
This leads logically to the position that only atoms exist, and
there are no composite objects (objects with parts), which
would mean that human bodies, clouds, planets, etc, all do not
exist.
There is no room in this theory for the concept of a God, and
essentially it is a type of Materialism and Physicalism .
26. Leucippus and Democritus
Were the first to theorize that the world was
composed of tiny particles called ATOMs( these
particles were invisible, indivisible to the
human eye yet Ubiquitous( universal,
omnipresent)
27. Greek philosophers all started a new type of
thinking. Rather than believing in myths and
stories, they began searching for the truth of
the world by using their rational thinking.
The ideas of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and
hundreds of other Greek philosophers, have
all remained important in the
development of
very
other
ideas, as well as science,
new philosophical
astronomy,
physics, medicine, and mathematics
28.
29. The Greek civilization
started in the Balkan
Peninsula, but some Greeks
lived in islands and in Asia
Minor (Turkey)
They started to live
together in city-states or
polis, which had its own
government, laws and
army. Athens and Sparta
were important city-
states.
30. The rulers of the polis were rich
people, or aristoi, and so this form
of government was called
“aristocracy”.
Sparta was an example of
aristocratic government.
Later, in some polis, “democracy”,
replaced aristocracy. People met at
“assemblies” to make decisions and
choose their representatives. They
also created “councils” which
prepared subjects to discuss at
assemblies. Athens was an example
of democratic government
31. Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Greece went
through a period of crisis because the population
increased and as the land wasn’t fertile, there was not
enough food for everyone; so many Greeks migrated
and founded colonies around the Mediterranean sea.
Colonies had the same traditions and organizations as
the polis they came from, but they were independent.
Colonization spread Greek influence beyond
its frontiers.
32. Greek society was an unequal society, it was divided into two groups:
citizens and non-citizens. Only a minority of people were “citizens”
who enjoyed many rights, as the right to vote or take part in politics.
There were three different categories
of “non-citizens”:
Foreigners, who were free and could fight in the army, worked in trade
and crafts but could not own land or houses.
Slaves, who were not free and worked for a family. They worked in agriculture of
domestic work.
Women,who could be free or slaves, but had no rights.They were
always under the rule of a man.
33. • Ancient civilizations used myths to explain the world.
The Greeks were the first to look for an explanation of
natural phenomena using logic and reasoning. That is
why the Greeks are considered to be the fathers of
Philosophy and Science. The three greatest Greek
philosophers were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
• Education was very important in Greece. Boys
started school at the age of 7, they learnt to read and
write and some mathemathics. They learnt about
traditions, ethics and had military training. Girls did not
go to school and were iliterate.
34. The Greeks believed in many gods, each city-state has its own
deity. The gods were inmortal but they behaved as humans,they
ate, loved and fought, Zeus was the king of gods and lived with
the rest in Mount Olympus.
They also believed in Heroes who were sons of gods and humans,
Ulyses or Hercules were very powerful but mortal.They also
believed in fantastic creatures, such as cyclopes and centaurs.
The Greeks invented myths, that were stories about their gods and
heroes.
The Temples were the homes of the gods, and the priests were
their servants.The gods communicate with humans through
“Oracles”, that were messages from the gods that were
interpreted by a priest.
35. Greek Architecture: The Greeks constructed many different
types of buildings, but the most important ones were the
temples. They were rectangular and normally built in white
marble and painted in colours. Greek architects, who were
concerned about proportion, harmony and beauty, followed very
strict rules according to three orders that determined the style of
the building.The three orders were Doric, Ionic and
Corinthinian.
Greek Sculpture: Most of Greek sculptures and reliefs represented
deities and heroes and were found in temples. Greek Sculptors
were interested in representing the beauty of the naked human
body: Most of the sculptures were made in marble and bronze and
painted in bright coulours.
36. “No man ever steps in the same river twice,
for it's not the same river and he's not the
same man.”
―Heraclitus
37. Life of Heraclitus
Heraclitus (late 6th
century BC) was a
pre-Socratic Greek
philosopher, a
native of Ephesus,
an important city on
the Ionian coast of
Asia Minor, not far
birthplace
from Miletus, the
of
philosophy.
38. We know nothing about his life other than
what can be gleaned from his own
statements, he regarded himself as self-
taught and a pioneer of wisdom; for all
ancient biographies of him consist of nothing
more than inferences or imaginary
constructions based on his sayings.
Life of Heraclitus
39. Life of Heraclitus
From the lonely life he
led, and still more from
the apparently riddled
and allegedly paradoxical
nature of his philosophy
and his stress upon the
needless unconsciousness
of humankind, he was
called "The Obscure" and
the "Weeping
Philosopher".
40. Heraclitus appears to have written only one
book, entitled On Nature. Diogenes states that
Heraclitus' work was "a continuous treatise
On Nature, but was divided into three
discourses, one on the universe, another on
politics, and a third on theology.”
Theophrastus says (in Diogenes) "...some
parts of his work [are] half-finished, while
other parts [made] a strange medley.
On Nature
41. On Nature
The complete text of
Heraclitus' book has been
lost; however, since he was
frequently quoted by other
ancient philosophers, there
are about 130 fragments of
writing attributed to him.
Unfortunately, more than
one-half of these fragments
have been challenged as to
their authenticity by
various scholars at various
times. This leaves only
about 60 fragments which
are accepted as genuine by
all classical academics.
42. According to both Plato and Aristotle , Heraclitus held
extreme views that led to logical incoherence. For he
held that
everything is constantly changing
opposite things are identical
everything is and is not at the same time.
TheDoctrineofFluxand
theUnity ofOpposites
43. Logos
The writing of
Heraclitus was the
first place where the
word logoswas given
special attention in
ancient Greek
philosophy.
44. Heraclitus argued that there was an objective truth
about everything, an underlying current flowing across
a time, and on to the next one. This constancy he called
Logos. Logos, for Heraclitus, was the world’s rationale,
its determining formula, the truth, and thus the key to
everythings nature. Heraclitus, therefore, was
understandably opposed to the naïve empiricism of his
time, and pleaded that men come to discover the ‘depth
of the soul’s own logos’.
Logos
45. Arche - Fire
Fire, for Heraclitus the
primordial element arche.
From fire all things originate,
and return to it again in a
process of eternal cycles. He
believed fire gave rise to the
other elements. He regarded
the soul as being a mixture
of fire and water, with fire
being the noble part of the
soul, and water the ignoble
part.
46. This Cosmos[the same of all] did none of gods or men make.
But it always was, and is, and shall be an ever-living Fire,
kindling in measures and going out in measures.
This passage contains the earliest extant philosophical
use of the word kosmos denoting the organized world in
which we live, with earth, sea, atmosphere, and
heavens.
PhysicalTheory
47. Heraclitus' criticisms and metaphysical speculations are
grounded in a physical theory. He explains the order and
proportion in which the stuffs change:
The turnings of fire: first sea, and of sea, half is earth, half firewind
Fire is transformed into water ("sea") of which half turns
back into fire ("firewind") and half into earth. Thus there is a
sequence of stuffs: fire, water, earth, which are
interconnected
PhysicalTheory
48. When earth turns back into sea, it occupies the same volume
as it had before it turned into earth. Thus we can recognize a
primitive law of conservation-not precisely conservation of
matter, at least the identity of the matter is not conserved,
nor of mass, but at least an equivalence of matter is
maintained. Although the fragments do not give detailed
information about Heraclitus' physics, it seems likely that the
amount of water that evaporates each day is balanced by the
amount of stuff that precipitates as water, and so on, so that
a balance of stuffs is maintained even though portions of
stuff are constantly changing their identity.
PhysicalTheory
49. I chose Heraclitus as a subject of my presentation
because I find natural philosophers’ theories very
engaging in general and Heraclitus’ theory of fire being
‘the beginning of everything’ caught my attention. In
process I found out about his Doctrine of Flux which is
a very interesting and unusual concept too and gives
food for thought.
Why Heraclitus?