Ancient Greek philosophy began with the Presocratic philosophers who rejected mythological explanations in favor of rational ones. They asked fundamental questions about the origin and structure of the universe. Major Presocratic schools included the Milesians who proposed water, air or the boundless as the fundamental substance; Heraclitus who saw the world as constantly changing; the Eleatics who believed reality was fixed; Pythagoreans who saw mathematics and numbers as fundamental; and pluralists and atomists who proposed multiple elements or indivisible atoms as reality's basis.
The document provides an overview of several early Pre-Socratic philosophical periods and schools of thought in ancient Greece, including the Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), the Ephesian school (Heraclitus), pluralism (Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Empedocles), Pythagoreanism, sophism, and atomism. It describes some of the key philosophers within each school and summarizes some of their major philosophical ideas, such as their views on the fundamental substances or principles that constitute reality.
- Greek philosophy began with the Pre-Socratic period, including early philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes who attempted to explain the universe through singular elements like water or air.
- Additional early philosophers included Heraclitus, who believed in constant change, and the atomists Leucippus and Democritus, who were the first to theorize that matter was made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
- Socrates disagreed with the Sophists' teachings and used questioning to help students discover ethical truths for themselves, influencing both Plato and Aristotle, two of the most important Greek philosophers.
The document provides an overview of the nature and history of philosophy. It discusses how philosophy began with early Greek philosophers asking questions about the natural world and seeking rational explanations. Key philosophers and schools of thought mentioned include the Milesians, Pre-Socratics like Parmenides and Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, the Stoics, Skeptics, and Cynics of the ancient world. It then outlines the development of philosophy through the medieval scholastic tradition, as well as the birth of modern science with figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, and Leibniz in the early modern period.
The document summarizes 10 early ancient Greek philosophers who asked rational questions about the world rather than attributing its creation to gods. It describes each philosopher chronologically from Thales, who predicted a solar eclipse, to Xenophanes, who ridiculed polytheism and believed in an eternal deity of the world. Key figures discussed include Pythagoras and his famous theorem, Parmenides who argued reality cannot come from nothing, and Empedocles who asserted the four classical elements of earth, air, fire and water.
Western philosophy began in ancient Greece with early philosophers speculating about the natural world. Key early Greek schools included the Ionians who proposed naturalistic explanations and the Pythagoreans who combined mathematics and mysticism. Socrates emphasized ethics and virtue while Plato developed his theory of Forms which posited ideal versions of objects in a separate realm of reality. Plato founded his Academy school to teach these ideas and his student Aristotle further advanced philosophical systems.
The document discusses pre-Socratic philosophy from 600-450 BC. It introduces several influential early Greek philosophers including Thales, who proposed that water is the fundamental substance; Anaximander, who argued reality is composed of an undefined "boundless"; and Heraclitus, who believed the universe is eternal change and conflict of opposites. It also covers Parmenides' view that change is an illusion and reality is one unchanging whole, and Democritus' atomic theory that all matter is composed of invisible, indivisible atoms.
CH2 - Archetypes of Wisdom Douglas J. Soccio Chapter 2ssuser3d3158
The document provides an overview of early Greek philosophers known as the Presocratics, who emerged prior to Socrates. It discusses several key figures and ideas:
- Thales was considered the first Western philosopher and proposed that everything was composed of water. He inspired rational discourse through argumentation.
- Anaximander reasoned that the earth stays stationary at the center of the cosmos due to balance. He claimed things emerged from an infinite substance called the apeiron.
- Heraclitus viewed the world as governed by an underlying order or logos and believed that change was fundamental yet constant.
- Parmenides argued reality is one unchanging being, while appearance and change are illusions
The document provides an overview of several early Pre-Socratic philosophical periods and schools of thought in ancient Greece, including the Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), the Ephesian school (Heraclitus), pluralism (Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Empedocles), Pythagoreanism, sophism, and atomism. It describes some of the key philosophers within each school and summarizes some of their major philosophical ideas, such as their views on the fundamental substances or principles that constitute reality.
- Greek philosophy began with the Pre-Socratic period, including early philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes who attempted to explain the universe through singular elements like water or air.
- Additional early philosophers included Heraclitus, who believed in constant change, and the atomists Leucippus and Democritus, who were the first to theorize that matter was made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
- Socrates disagreed with the Sophists' teachings and used questioning to help students discover ethical truths for themselves, influencing both Plato and Aristotle, two of the most important Greek philosophers.
The document provides an overview of the nature and history of philosophy. It discusses how philosophy began with early Greek philosophers asking questions about the natural world and seeking rational explanations. Key philosophers and schools of thought mentioned include the Milesians, Pre-Socratics like Parmenides and Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, the Stoics, Skeptics, and Cynics of the ancient world. It then outlines the development of philosophy through the medieval scholastic tradition, as well as the birth of modern science with figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, and Leibniz in the early modern period.
The document summarizes 10 early ancient Greek philosophers who asked rational questions about the world rather than attributing its creation to gods. It describes each philosopher chronologically from Thales, who predicted a solar eclipse, to Xenophanes, who ridiculed polytheism and believed in an eternal deity of the world. Key figures discussed include Pythagoras and his famous theorem, Parmenides who argued reality cannot come from nothing, and Empedocles who asserted the four classical elements of earth, air, fire and water.
Western philosophy began in ancient Greece with early philosophers speculating about the natural world. Key early Greek schools included the Ionians who proposed naturalistic explanations and the Pythagoreans who combined mathematics and mysticism. Socrates emphasized ethics and virtue while Plato developed his theory of Forms which posited ideal versions of objects in a separate realm of reality. Plato founded his Academy school to teach these ideas and his student Aristotle further advanced philosophical systems.
The document discusses pre-Socratic philosophy from 600-450 BC. It introduces several influential early Greek philosophers including Thales, who proposed that water is the fundamental substance; Anaximander, who argued reality is composed of an undefined "boundless"; and Heraclitus, who believed the universe is eternal change and conflict of opposites. It also covers Parmenides' view that change is an illusion and reality is one unchanging whole, and Democritus' atomic theory that all matter is composed of invisible, indivisible atoms.
CH2 - Archetypes of Wisdom Douglas J. Soccio Chapter 2ssuser3d3158
The document provides an overview of early Greek philosophers known as the Presocratics, who emerged prior to Socrates. It discusses several key figures and ideas:
- Thales was considered the first Western philosopher and proposed that everything was composed of water. He inspired rational discourse through argumentation.
- Anaximander reasoned that the earth stays stationary at the center of the cosmos due to balance. He claimed things emerged from an infinite substance called the apeiron.
- Heraclitus viewed the world as governed by an underlying order or logos and believed that change was fundamental yet constant.
- Parmenides argued reality is one unchanging being, while appearance and change are illusions
The document discusses early Greek philosophers known as the pre-Socratics who lived prior to Socrates in the 6th-5th centuries BC. The first pre-Socratic was Thales of Miletus who proposed that water was the fundamental substance that all things originated from. His student Anaximander rejected Thales' view and claimed everything came from an undefined substance called apeiron. Another pre-Socratic, Anaximenes, proposed that air was the fundamental substance.
Subsequent pre-Socratics like Heraclitus believed the world was in a constant state of flux and conflict. Parm
Uti index-papers-e-chapter5-religion-philosophy-and-scienceHIDEUMI SEKIGUCHI
This document examines the historical relationship between religion, philosophy, and science. It finds that throughout much of history:
1) Religion, philosophy, and science were closely intertwined, with each guiding and supporting the development of the others.
2) However, at some points certain religious or philosophical views hindered scientific progress by providing incorrect guidance.
3) Major scientific advances like those of Copernicus and Newton were not aimed at rejecting God, but rather understanding God's creation more accurately. Overall the document finds that religion and philosophy have generally played a positive role in guiding scientific development when providing the right direction, rather than being in conflict.
Uti index-papers-e-chapter5-religion-philosophy-and-scienceHideumi Sekiguchi
This document examines the historical relationship between religion, philosophy, and science. It finds that throughout much of history:
1) Religion and philosophy often guided and supported the development of science by providing worldviews and direction for scientific inquiry.
2) Conflicts between religion/philosophy and science were usually not about the existence of God, but rather struggles between old and new views of nature.
3) Science has progressed according to God's providence, with mathematical and scientific discoveries often later being applied in unexpected ways. Religion and philosophy have played an important role in cultural progress despite occasional conflicts with science.
Hum1020 for love of wisdom ancient greek philosophyProfWillAdams
This document provides an overview of ancient Greek philosophy from its earliest thinkers to Aristotle. It discusses how the Pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales, Pythagoras, and Protagoras sought to understand the natural world and human existence. It then explains how Socrates developed the dialectic method and influenced his students Plato and Aristotle, who went on to establish some of the foundational concepts of Western philosophy through their writings and teachings.
Hum2220 for love of wisdom ancient greek philosophyProfWillAdams
Greek philosophy attained maturity in ancient Greece. The earliest thinkers sought to understand the physical world and human existence, while later thinkers like Socrates focused more on discovering the meaning of life. Key early philosophers included Thales, Pythagoras, Protagoras, Hippocrates, and Democritus. The three most famous Socratic philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates developed the dialectic method and was executed for corrupting youth. Plato preserved Socrates' teachings by writing dialogues and founded the Academy. Aristotle was a student of Plato and developed logic as an independent field while tutoring Alexander the Great.
The document discusses the Presocratic philosophers who lived before Socrates. It provides summaries of the theories of several early philosophers:
- Thales of Miletus proposed that water is the basic element that constitutes all things in the natural world.
- Heraclitus believed that fire is the fundamental element and that all things are in constant flux and change.
- Leucippus and Democritus introduced the theory of atomism, which is the idea that everything is composed of indivisible and indestructible particles called atoms.
- Anaximander proposed the concept of an infinite or boundless element called the "apeiron" that produces the basic elements of water, fire, air
this is the full history of philosophy both western and eastern philosophy in detailed and year wise tabular view. this is year by year history of philosophy and it is more precise one.
This document provides information on several pre-Socratic philosophers including Zeno of Elea, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Thales of Miletus, Pythagoras, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. It summarizes their key ideas and contributions to early philosophy and science prior to Socrates. These philosophers were among the first to attempt natural explanations for phenomena rather than relying on mythology. They engaged in metaphysical and scientific speculation about topics like the origin and nature of the physical world.
Chapter 1. lecture 2. human being according to Mayramarie Flor
1. The ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales, Anaximenes, and Xenophanes, viewed the basic substance or "stuff" that constitutes the world as also constituting humans. Thales argued it was water, Anaximenes said air, and Xenophanes argued it was earth.
2. Anaximander believed all things come from an eternal, boundless substance called the apeiron and return to it. He suggested humans evolved from sea creatures.
3. The Pythagoreans were the first to view humans as consisting of both a body and an immortal soul, with the soul able to be reincarnated into other forms.
The document discusses the history of human anatomy from ancient times to the Renaissance. It describes how early Greek thinkers like Alcmaeon, Empedocles, and Hippocrates began the intellectual development of anatomy by studying animal anatomy and making inferences about the human body. Aristotle made important contributions through his work in comparative anatomy and embryology. However, the greatest advances were made by Herophilus and Galen during the 3rd century BC in Alexandria, where they were the first to conduct formal human dissections and describe anatomical structures. The Renaissance brought a revival of anatomical study building on the work of these early pioneers.
This document provides an overview of five important Greek philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Aristotle, and Empedocles. It summarizes key biographical details and contributions to philosophy for each one. Socrates is considered the father of western philosophy and was put on trial and sentenced to death. Plato founded the Academy in Athens and was a student of Socrates. Pythagoras made important contributions to mathematics and believed that numbers governed the universe. Aristotle studied under Plato and rejected his theory of forms, making significant contributions across many fields. Empedocles originated the theory of the four classical elements and proposed the forces of Love and Strife.
This document provides an introduction to the philosophy of the human person. It discusses the origins and history of philosophy. Philosophy began in ancient Greece, with thinkers like Thales of Miletus asking questions about the basic substance or nature of reality. The history of philosophy is then divided into ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary periods. The ancient period was cosmocentric, the medieval was theocentric focusing on God, modern was anthropocentric focusing on man, and contemporary analyzes philosophy. The document contrasts Western and Eastern philosophy, noting differences like Western philosophy stemming from Greece/Christianity and Eastern from Asia, but also similarities like both seeking deeper understanding of reality. Students are assigned an activity making a Venn diagram comparing Western and
1. Ancient Greek philosophers made many contributions to the development of science. Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes proposed early naturalistic theories explaining the world without resorting to mythology.
2. The Pythagorean school, founded by Pythagoras, made advances in mathematics and also studied harmonies in music and the cosmos. Empedocles proposed that all things are made of combinations of four elements.
3. Plato founded the Academy in Athens and emphasized rational thought over empirical observation. His student, Aristotle, established the Lyceum and made wide-ranging contributions to many fields including biology, physics, ethics, and logic. He viewed the universe as a system of
Discussion Board Week 1 What was the greatest contribution of LyndonPelletier761
The document provides an overview of ancient Greek philosophers and their contributions to early concepts in psychology. It discusses key thinkers from Ionia like Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus who proposed early metaphysical theories. It also covers Pythagoras and his mathematical approach to understanding the universe. Later Greek philosophers discussed include Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno of Elea who debated ideas of motion and the nature of reality. The document aims to summarize the historical foundations and early debates that influenced the development of Western philosophy and psychology.
The document provides an introduction to philosophy and science. It defines science as a systematic way of studying the world using methods like observation and experimentation. It discusses how ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle influenced the development of scientific thinking by taking a rational approach to understanding nature. The document also explains how developments in philosophy and science have interacted and influenced each other over time.
The document discusses intellectual revolutions that defined society, focusing on scientific revolutions from the 14th to 18th centuries in Europe. It describes how early philosophers developed ideas about the natural world, and how the scientific revolution challenged existing religious views and established the scientific method. The revolution transformed society by establishing science as a discipline and field of inquiry, and shifting views about the relationship between humanity, nature, and the cosmos from geocentric to heliocentric models. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler played important roles in this intellectual transformation through their scientific theories and observations.
The period after Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC saw the spread of Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean world. Many scientists and scholars accompanied Alexander's conquests and gained new knowledge from places like Egypt and the Near East. Ptolemy established the Library of Alexandria in Egypt in the early 300s BC, creating the largest library of the ancient world containing over 500,000 scrolls and sponsoring research. Scholars like Euclid, Eratosthenes, and Archimedes conducted pioneering work in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and physics. Philosophies also diversified during this period with schools of thought like Epicureanism emphasizing pleasure and Stoicism preaching self-control and indifference to pain or
The Greeks believed in a family of powerful gods and goddesses led by Zeus who lived on Mount Olympus. Some of the major deities included Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Aphrodite, Athena, and Apollo. Greek mythology and religion heavily influenced their culture. Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle challenged earlier beliefs and sought universal truths. The Greeks made advances in arts like sculpture, theater, and architecture that emphasized balance and proportion. During the Hellenistic period after Alexander's conquests, Greek science flourished with scholars like Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Euclid and Archimedes making discoveries in astronomy
Early Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Democritus attempted to understand the natural world through reason rather than myths or religion. Thales believed all things were made of water, while Anaximander proposed an indefinite "boundless" element. Democritus developed an atomic theory, believing the world was made of invisible particles. Socrates disagreed with the Sophists' teachings and used questioning to help students determine right from wrong. Plato documented Socrates' teachings and examined justice in works like The Republic. Aristotle studied many topics and emphasized balance and moderation. Greek philosophy emphasized rational thought and questioning, laying the foundation for many fields of modern study.
This document provides an introduction to Islamic banking and finance. It discusses the key prohibitions of riba (interest), gharar (excessive uncertainty), and impermissible activities according to Islamic law. It defines Islamic banking as banking that complies with Shariah. The document outlines the historical origins and modern development of Islamic banking. It explains the basic functions and operations of Islamic banks, including the flow of funds and profits based on profit and loss sharing. Six key principles of Islamic banking are identified, including the prohibition of interest and emphasis on real economic activity.
This document discusses the concept of naskh (abrogation) in Islamic law. It provides definitions and examples of explicit and implicit abrogation. It also discusses the different types of Islamic legal evidence that can abrogate one another, such as Quranic texts, hadith, and scholarly consensus. Additionally, it outlines six grades of Islamic legal scholars from mujtahid mutlaq who establish foundational principles to later scholars who derive rulings and clarify existing cases.
The document discusses early Greek philosophers known as the pre-Socratics who lived prior to Socrates in the 6th-5th centuries BC. The first pre-Socratic was Thales of Miletus who proposed that water was the fundamental substance that all things originated from. His student Anaximander rejected Thales' view and claimed everything came from an undefined substance called apeiron. Another pre-Socratic, Anaximenes, proposed that air was the fundamental substance.
Subsequent pre-Socratics like Heraclitus believed the world was in a constant state of flux and conflict. Parm
Uti index-papers-e-chapter5-religion-philosophy-and-scienceHIDEUMI SEKIGUCHI
This document examines the historical relationship between religion, philosophy, and science. It finds that throughout much of history:
1) Religion, philosophy, and science were closely intertwined, with each guiding and supporting the development of the others.
2) However, at some points certain religious or philosophical views hindered scientific progress by providing incorrect guidance.
3) Major scientific advances like those of Copernicus and Newton were not aimed at rejecting God, but rather understanding God's creation more accurately. Overall the document finds that religion and philosophy have generally played a positive role in guiding scientific development when providing the right direction, rather than being in conflict.
Uti index-papers-e-chapter5-religion-philosophy-and-scienceHideumi Sekiguchi
This document examines the historical relationship between religion, philosophy, and science. It finds that throughout much of history:
1) Religion and philosophy often guided and supported the development of science by providing worldviews and direction for scientific inquiry.
2) Conflicts between religion/philosophy and science were usually not about the existence of God, but rather struggles between old and new views of nature.
3) Science has progressed according to God's providence, with mathematical and scientific discoveries often later being applied in unexpected ways. Religion and philosophy have played an important role in cultural progress despite occasional conflicts with science.
Hum1020 for love of wisdom ancient greek philosophyProfWillAdams
This document provides an overview of ancient Greek philosophy from its earliest thinkers to Aristotle. It discusses how the Pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales, Pythagoras, and Protagoras sought to understand the natural world and human existence. It then explains how Socrates developed the dialectic method and influenced his students Plato and Aristotle, who went on to establish some of the foundational concepts of Western philosophy through their writings and teachings.
Hum2220 for love of wisdom ancient greek philosophyProfWillAdams
Greek philosophy attained maturity in ancient Greece. The earliest thinkers sought to understand the physical world and human existence, while later thinkers like Socrates focused more on discovering the meaning of life. Key early philosophers included Thales, Pythagoras, Protagoras, Hippocrates, and Democritus. The three most famous Socratic philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates developed the dialectic method and was executed for corrupting youth. Plato preserved Socrates' teachings by writing dialogues and founded the Academy. Aristotle was a student of Plato and developed logic as an independent field while tutoring Alexander the Great.
The document discusses the Presocratic philosophers who lived before Socrates. It provides summaries of the theories of several early philosophers:
- Thales of Miletus proposed that water is the basic element that constitutes all things in the natural world.
- Heraclitus believed that fire is the fundamental element and that all things are in constant flux and change.
- Leucippus and Democritus introduced the theory of atomism, which is the idea that everything is composed of indivisible and indestructible particles called atoms.
- Anaximander proposed the concept of an infinite or boundless element called the "apeiron" that produces the basic elements of water, fire, air
this is the full history of philosophy both western and eastern philosophy in detailed and year wise tabular view. this is year by year history of philosophy and it is more precise one.
This document provides information on several pre-Socratic philosophers including Zeno of Elea, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Thales of Miletus, Pythagoras, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. It summarizes their key ideas and contributions to early philosophy and science prior to Socrates. These philosophers were among the first to attempt natural explanations for phenomena rather than relying on mythology. They engaged in metaphysical and scientific speculation about topics like the origin and nature of the physical world.
Chapter 1. lecture 2. human being according to Mayramarie Flor
1. The ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales, Anaximenes, and Xenophanes, viewed the basic substance or "stuff" that constitutes the world as also constituting humans. Thales argued it was water, Anaximenes said air, and Xenophanes argued it was earth.
2. Anaximander believed all things come from an eternal, boundless substance called the apeiron and return to it. He suggested humans evolved from sea creatures.
3. The Pythagoreans were the first to view humans as consisting of both a body and an immortal soul, with the soul able to be reincarnated into other forms.
The document discusses the history of human anatomy from ancient times to the Renaissance. It describes how early Greek thinkers like Alcmaeon, Empedocles, and Hippocrates began the intellectual development of anatomy by studying animal anatomy and making inferences about the human body. Aristotle made important contributions through his work in comparative anatomy and embryology. However, the greatest advances were made by Herophilus and Galen during the 3rd century BC in Alexandria, where they were the first to conduct formal human dissections and describe anatomical structures. The Renaissance brought a revival of anatomical study building on the work of these early pioneers.
This document provides an overview of five important Greek philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Aristotle, and Empedocles. It summarizes key biographical details and contributions to philosophy for each one. Socrates is considered the father of western philosophy and was put on trial and sentenced to death. Plato founded the Academy in Athens and was a student of Socrates. Pythagoras made important contributions to mathematics and believed that numbers governed the universe. Aristotle studied under Plato and rejected his theory of forms, making significant contributions across many fields. Empedocles originated the theory of the four classical elements and proposed the forces of Love and Strife.
This document provides an introduction to the philosophy of the human person. It discusses the origins and history of philosophy. Philosophy began in ancient Greece, with thinkers like Thales of Miletus asking questions about the basic substance or nature of reality. The history of philosophy is then divided into ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary periods. The ancient period was cosmocentric, the medieval was theocentric focusing on God, modern was anthropocentric focusing on man, and contemporary analyzes philosophy. The document contrasts Western and Eastern philosophy, noting differences like Western philosophy stemming from Greece/Christianity and Eastern from Asia, but also similarities like both seeking deeper understanding of reality. Students are assigned an activity making a Venn diagram comparing Western and
1. Ancient Greek philosophers made many contributions to the development of science. Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes proposed early naturalistic theories explaining the world without resorting to mythology.
2. The Pythagorean school, founded by Pythagoras, made advances in mathematics and also studied harmonies in music and the cosmos. Empedocles proposed that all things are made of combinations of four elements.
3. Plato founded the Academy in Athens and emphasized rational thought over empirical observation. His student, Aristotle, established the Lyceum and made wide-ranging contributions to many fields including biology, physics, ethics, and logic. He viewed the universe as a system of
Discussion Board Week 1 What was the greatest contribution of LyndonPelletier761
The document provides an overview of ancient Greek philosophers and their contributions to early concepts in psychology. It discusses key thinkers from Ionia like Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus who proposed early metaphysical theories. It also covers Pythagoras and his mathematical approach to understanding the universe. Later Greek philosophers discussed include Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno of Elea who debated ideas of motion and the nature of reality. The document aims to summarize the historical foundations and early debates that influenced the development of Western philosophy and psychology.
The document provides an introduction to philosophy and science. It defines science as a systematic way of studying the world using methods like observation and experimentation. It discusses how ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle influenced the development of scientific thinking by taking a rational approach to understanding nature. The document also explains how developments in philosophy and science have interacted and influenced each other over time.
The document discusses intellectual revolutions that defined society, focusing on scientific revolutions from the 14th to 18th centuries in Europe. It describes how early philosophers developed ideas about the natural world, and how the scientific revolution challenged existing religious views and established the scientific method. The revolution transformed society by establishing science as a discipline and field of inquiry, and shifting views about the relationship between humanity, nature, and the cosmos from geocentric to heliocentric models. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler played important roles in this intellectual transformation through their scientific theories and observations.
The period after Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC saw the spread of Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean world. Many scientists and scholars accompanied Alexander's conquests and gained new knowledge from places like Egypt and the Near East. Ptolemy established the Library of Alexandria in Egypt in the early 300s BC, creating the largest library of the ancient world containing over 500,000 scrolls and sponsoring research. Scholars like Euclid, Eratosthenes, and Archimedes conducted pioneering work in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and physics. Philosophies also diversified during this period with schools of thought like Epicureanism emphasizing pleasure and Stoicism preaching self-control and indifference to pain or
The Greeks believed in a family of powerful gods and goddesses led by Zeus who lived on Mount Olympus. Some of the major deities included Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Aphrodite, Athena, and Apollo. Greek mythology and religion heavily influenced their culture. Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle challenged earlier beliefs and sought universal truths. The Greeks made advances in arts like sculpture, theater, and architecture that emphasized balance and proportion. During the Hellenistic period after Alexander's conquests, Greek science flourished with scholars like Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Euclid and Archimedes making discoveries in astronomy
Early Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Democritus attempted to understand the natural world through reason rather than myths or religion. Thales believed all things were made of water, while Anaximander proposed an indefinite "boundless" element. Democritus developed an atomic theory, believing the world was made of invisible particles. Socrates disagreed with the Sophists' teachings and used questioning to help students determine right from wrong. Plato documented Socrates' teachings and examined justice in works like The Republic. Aristotle studied many topics and emphasized balance and moderation. Greek philosophy emphasized rational thought and questioning, laying the foundation for many fields of modern study.
This document provides an introduction to Islamic banking and finance. It discusses the key prohibitions of riba (interest), gharar (excessive uncertainty), and impermissible activities according to Islamic law. It defines Islamic banking as banking that complies with Shariah. The document outlines the historical origins and modern development of Islamic banking. It explains the basic functions and operations of Islamic banks, including the flow of funds and profits based on profit and loss sharing. Six key principles of Islamic banking are identified, including the prohibition of interest and emphasis on real economic activity.
This document discusses the concept of naskh (abrogation) in Islamic law. It provides definitions and examples of explicit and implicit abrogation. It also discusses the different types of Islamic legal evidence that can abrogate one another, such as Quranic texts, hadith, and scholarly consensus. Additionally, it outlines six grades of Islamic legal scholars from mujtahid mutlaq who establish foundational principles to later scholars who derive rulings and clarify existing cases.
This document discusses different approaches to budgeting in the public sector, including traditional budgeting, programme and performance budgeting, modified budgeting, and outcome-based budgeting. Traditional budgeting focuses on line items and inputs, while programme and performance budgeting links resources to programmes and objectives. Modified budgeting gives managers more autonomy over financial management. Outcome-based budgeting focuses on the outcomes achieved rather than the inputs used. The document examines the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.
Research Variables & How To Control Them - Research Methods (Psychology).pptDrMuhammadAzizurRahm1
This document discusses key concepts in experimental research methods, including independent and dependent variables, and how to control extraneous variables. It defines independent variables as stimuli that are systematically manipulated, and dependent variables as response measures that are observed to change as a result. Two main techniques for controlling extraneous variables are discussed: elimination, by removing extraneous variables from the research situation, and constancy of conditions, by holding potential extraneous variables constant across experimental conditions.
This document summarizes key ideas and thinkers in the development of comparative public administration as a field of study. It discusses early influences like Woodrow Wilson's politics-administration dichotomy and Max Weber's ideal type of bureaucracy. It also outlines the origins and evolution of the field from development administration to new public management. Major conceptual approaches to comparative methodology like functionalism and neo-institutionalism are introduced. Finally, it identifies common cross-cutting topics of analysis like corruption, culture, and policy implementation that comparative public administration seeks to understand across contexts.
This document discusses ontology, epistemology, and axiology in the context of the philosophy of science. It explains that these three concepts are interrelated and must all be considered when developing scientific knowledge. Ontology concerns basic questions about facts and reality. Epistemology involves more complex questions about how knowledge is obtained and the nature of truth. Axiology addresses the most complex questions about the purpose and value of knowledge. Developing science requires using all three frameworks to move from facts to methodology to the application of knowledge.
This document outlines guidelines for crafting messages for various electronic media used in business. It discusses the appropriate uses and best practices for social media, email, instant messages, blogs, and podcasts. Specific tips are provided for content creation and distribution across different channels, as well as applying a three-step writing process to each medium. The goals are to help readers understand how to engage audiences and communicate professionally using electronic and social media tools.
13062024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdfFIRST INDIA
Find Latest India News and Breaking News these days from India on Politics, Business, Entertainment, Technology, Sports, Lifestyle and Coronavirus News in India and the world over that you can't miss. For real time update Visit our social media handle. Read First India NewsPaper in your morning replace. Visit First India.
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Essential Tools for Modern PR Business .pptxPragencyuk
Discover the essential tools and strategies for modern PR business success. Learn how to craft compelling news releases, leverage press release sites and news wires, stay updated with PR news, and integrate effective PR practices to enhance your brand's visibility and credibility. Elevate your PR efforts with our comprehensive guide.
केरल उच्च न्यायालय ने 11 जून, 2024 को मंडला पूजा में भाग लेने की अनुमति मांगने वाली 10 वर्षीय लड़की की रिट याचिका को खारिज कर दिया, जिसमें सर्वोच्च न्यायालय की एक बड़ी पीठ के समक्ष इस मुद्दे की लंबित प्रकृति पर जोर दिया गया। यह आदेश न्यायमूर्ति अनिल के. नरेंद्रन और न्यायमूर्ति हरिशंकर वी. मेनन की खंडपीठ द्वारा पारित किया गया
Youngest c m in India- Pema Khandu BiographyVoterMood
Pema Khandu, born on August 21, 1979, is an Indian politician and the Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh. He is the son of former Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh, Dorjee Khandu. Pema Khandu assumed office as the Chief Minister in July 2016, making him one of the youngest Chief Ministers in India at that time.
2. I. INTRODUCTION
A. Introduction
Ancient Greece
Refers to the period of Greek history lasting from
ca. 1100 BC (Dorian invasion), to 146 BC and the
Roman conquest of Greece (Battle of Corinth).
The seminal culture which provided the
foundation of Western civilization.
Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman
Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of
Europe.
The civilization of the ancient Greeks has been
immensely influential on language, politics,
educational systems, philosophy, science, and art.
3. I. INTRODUCTION
A. Introduction
Ancient Greek Philosophy
focuses on the role of reason and inquiry.
Many philosophers today concede that Greek philosophy
has shaped the entire Western thought since its inception.
Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek
and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim
philosophers, to the European Renaissance and
Enlightenment.
Early Greek philosophy, in turn, was influenced by
the older wisdom literature and mythological
cosmogonies of the Near East.
Nonetheless, philosophy is a Greek creation.
4. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
A. Introduction
The Pre-Socratic philosophers were active
before Socrates or contemporaneously, but
expounding knowledge developed earlier.
It is sometimes difficult to determine the actual line
of argument some pre-Socratics used in supporting
their particular views.
While most of them produced significant texts, none of
the texts have survived in complete form.
All we have are quotations by later philosophers and
historians, and the occasional textual fragment.
Pre-Socratic philosophers rejected mythological in
favor of more rational explanations.
5. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
A. Introduction
The Pre-Socratics concerned themselves with
Philosophy (love of knowledge and wisdom)
Began with natural explanations (logos) replacing
supernatural explanations (mythos).
Cosmology
The explanation of origin, structure, and processes
governing the universe (cosmos).
The universe was orderly and thus, in principle,
explainable.
They began a process of asking questions, defining
problems and identifying paradoxes.
6. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
A. Introduction
The Pre-Socratics
The questions some Pre-Socratics asked:
From where does everything come?
From what is everything created?
How do we explain the plurality of things found in
nature?
How might we describe nature mathematically?
Others concentrated on defining problems and
paradoxes that the basis for later mathematical,
scientific and philosophic study.
Later philosophers rejected the answers they provided, but
continued to place importance on their questions.
7. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
B. Milesian school
Milesian school
Was a school of thought founded in the 6th C. BC.
The ideas associated with it are exemplified by
philosophers from the Ionian town of Miletus, on the
Aegean coast of Anatolia
These philosophers introduced new opinions contrary to
the prevailing viewpoint on how the world was organized.
Natural phenomena were explained solely by the will of
anthropomorphized gods.
They presented a view of nature in terms of
methodologically observable entities, and as such was one
of the first truly scientific philosophies.
8. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
B. Milesian school
Thales (624-546 BCE)
First philosopher
Emphasized natural explanations while minimizing
supernatural ones.
The universe consists of natural substances and is
governed by natural principles.
Universe is knowable and understandable.
Thales searched for the one single substance from which
all others were derived- the physis or primary element.
The physis was water.
He ushered in the critical tradition – the criticism
and questioning of others’ teachings and views.
9. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
B. Milesian school
Anaximander (610-546 BCE)
Physis was a substance that had the capability of
becoming anything
Called the “boundless” or the “indefinite.”
Anaximenes (585 -525 BCE)
Probably a younger contemporary of Anaximander,
whose pupil or friend he is said to have been.[1]
He held the Physis to be air (translates to mist)
Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under
the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which
contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of
existence.
10. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
C. Heraclitus
Heraclitus (535-475 BCE)
Nature is in a constant state of flux or change.
Physis is fire because it transforms all things into
something else.
World is always “becoming” – never “is”
All things exist between polar opposites – must have
opposites.
Epistemological question
How can one know something if it is always changing?
The veracity of the senses began to be questioned.
Rationalists believe that there are knowable things in the
universe, while empiricists believe that everything is constantly
changing and thus incapable of being known.
11. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
D. Eleatics
The Eleatics
Were a school of philosophers at Elea (a Greek
colony in Campania, Italy)
Founded in the early fifth century BCE by Parmenides,
with Zeno of Elea his student.
Parmenides (510-440 BCE)
All things are constant; change is an illusion
One reality: finite, uniform, motionless, and fixed
Knowledge comes only through reason
(rationalism)
Sensory experience is not real, not to be trusted
12. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
D. Eleatics
Zeno (490-430 BCE)
Disciple of Parmenides
Used logical arguments (paradoxes) to show that
motion was an illusion to support Parmenides.
The paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise
Achilles is in a footrace with the tortoise. Achilles allows
the tortoise a head start of 100 feet.
If we suppose that each racer starts running at some
constant speed (one very fast and one very slow), then
after some finite time, Achilles will have run 100 feet,
bringing him to the tortoise's starting point.
13. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
D. Eleatics
The paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise
During this time, the tortoise has run a much shorter
distance, say, 10 feet.
It will then take Achilles some further time to run that
distance, by which time the tortoise will have advanced
farther; and then more time still to reach this third point,
while the tortoise moves ahead.
Thus, whenever Achilles reaches somewhere the tortoise
has been, he still has farther to go.
Therefore, because there are an infinite number of points
Achilles must reach where the tortoise has already been,
he can never overtake the tortoise.
Simple experience tells us that Achilles will be able to
overtake the tortoise, which is why this is a paradox.
14. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
F. Pythagorean School
Pythagorean School
Pythagoreans, who were much influenced by
mathematics and probably a very inspirational
source for Plato and Platonism.
Pythagoras (582-496 BCE) and the Pythagoreans.
First to use the term philosopher and call himself a
philosopher
Explanation of the universe is found in numbers and
numerical relationships
Applied mathematical principles to human experience
Numbers and numerical relationships were real and
influenced the empirical world
15. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
F. Pythagorean School
Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans (continued)
Illness was thought to result from a disruption of
the body’s equilibrium
Nothing is perfect in the empirical world;
perfection is in abstract mathematical world and
known only by reason
The Pythagoreans proposed a dualistic universe
One part abstract, permanent, and knowable (similar to
Parmenides)
One part empirical, changing, and known through the
senses, but senses cannot provide knowledge (similar to
Heraclitus)
16. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
F. Pythagorean School
Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans (continued)
The Pythagoreans lived a strict, disciplined life.
They crusaded against vice, lawlessness, and
bodily excess and believed that experiences in the
flesh (senses) were inferior to experiences in the
mind
Affected Plato’s views and impacted early
Christian thought.
17. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
G. Pluralist School
Pluralist School
They attempted to reconcile Parmenides' rejection of
change with the apparently changing world of sense
experience.
Empedocles (490-430 BCE)
Disciple of Pythagoras
Not just one physis but four elements that make up
the world – earth, fire, air, and water
Postulated love and strife as two universal powers
Causal powers and the elements operate together to
produce unending cosmic cycle of recurring phases.
18. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
G. Pluralist School
Empedocles
He proposed a theory of evolution.
Proposed an early theory of perception
Each of the four elements are found in the blood
Objects in the world throw off tiny copies of
themselves called “emanations” or eidola (plural of
eidolon), which enter the blood through pores in
the body, the eidola combine with elements like
themselves.
The fusion of external and internal elements results
in perception, which takes place in the heart
19. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
G. Pluralist School
Anaxagoras (500-428 BCE)
Proposed an infinite number of elements called
“seeds” from which all things were created
Seeds do not exist in isolation
every element contains all other elements.
The characteristics of something is determined by
the proportion of the elements present.
One exception – the mind is pure, contains no
other elements
Mind is part of all living things, but not a part of non-
living things
Anaxagoras was an early vitalist.
20. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
H. Atomist School
Atomist School
They taught that the hidden substance in all physical
objects consists of different arrangements of 1)
atoms and 2) void.
Both atoms and the void were never created, and they will
be never ending.
Democritus (460-370 BCE)
First completely naturalistic description of the
universe
All things were made of tiny particles called atoms
Characteristics of things are determined by shape, size,
number, location, and arrangement of atoms.
21. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
H. Atomist School
Democritus (460-370 BCE)
All things and events, animate, inanimate, and
cognitive can be reduced to atoms and atomic
activity.
Atom’s behavior is lawful (determinism)
All things explained by atomic activity (elementism)
Events and phenomena explained in terms of another,
more elemental level (reductionism).
Described sensation and perception in terms of
atoms emanating from the surface of objects and
entering the body through the sensory systems and
then transmitted to the brain.
22. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
I. The Sophists
Sophists
In the second half of the 5th C BCE, particularly at
Athens, "sophist" came to denote a class of itinerant
intellectuals who:
taught courses in "excellence" or "virtue”
speculated about the nature of language and culture
employed rhetoric to achieve their purposes, generally to
persuade or convince others.
They held that truth is relative – no single truth
exists
But claimed that they could find the answers to all
questions.
23. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
I. The Sophists
Protogoras (490-420 BCE)
Truth depends on the perceiver.
Perception varies from person to person because each
perceiver has different experiences.
Truth is partially determined by culture
To understand why a person believes as a person does,
one must understand the person.
Agnostic toward the Greek gods
Philosophy of relativity of truth is still present
today in postmodernism.
24. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
I. The Sophists
Gorgias (487-376 BCE)
Gorgias took a more extreme position than
Protogoras – all things are equally false
There is no objective basis of truth – nihilism –
one can only be aware of one’s own experiences
and mental states – solipsism.
He came to three conclusions:
Nothing exists
If it did exist, it could not be comprehended
If it could be comprehended, it could not be
Spoken words had power but they were essentially
deceitful.
25. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
I. The Sophists
Xenophanes (570-470 BCE)
Attacked veracity of religion before the Sophists
Xenophanes stated that religion is a human
invention. His evidence was:
Olympian gods act suspiciously like humans
Gods of different peoples look like the people themselves
Humans create religion – moral codes come from
man
He was not an atheist
Postulated a god that was unlike any other
described during that time.
26. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
J. Greek Medicine
Greek Medicine
Early medicine included temple medicine, healing
rituals practiced by priests in secret and guarded,
accompanied by much ritual and ceremony by
patients.
Alcmaeon: Naturalized medicine
Alcmaeon proposed a balance of physical qualities
needed for health
The physician’s job was to help the patient regain
equilibrium (a contemporary concept).
Through research, concluded that sensation, perception,
memory, thinking, and understanding occurred in the brain
based on own dissection work.
27. II. PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
J. Greek Medicine
Hippocrates: Father of Medicine
Humans are made of four humors, which need to
stay in balance.
ALL disorders are caused by natural factors such as
inherited susceptibility and organic injury, and by
imbalances in bodily fluids.
The body has the ability to heal itself – physician’s job was to
facilitate natural healing – treat the whole patient, not just the
disease
The Hippocratic oath, written by the Pythagoreans?
Galen: Hypothesized Personality
Personality theory created by associating the four
humors of Hippocrates with four temperaments
28. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
A. Socrates (469 BC–399 BC)
Socrates (469 BC–399 BC)
Credited as one of the founders of
Western philosophy.
Known only through the classical
accounts of his students.
Plato's dialogues are the most
comprehensive accounts of Socrates
to survive from antiquity.
Socrates who also lends his name
to the concepts of Socratic irony
and the Socratic method.
29. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
A. Socrates
Socrates
He agreed with sophists.
Personal experience is important,
but denied that no truth exists
beyond personal opinion.
Method of inductive definition
Examine instances of a concept
Ask the question – what is it that all
instances have in common?
Find the essence of the instances of
the concept.
Seek to find general concepts by
examining isolated instances.
30. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
A. Socrates
Socrates
The essence was a universally
accepted definition of a
concept.
Understanding essences
constituted knowledge and goal
of life was to gain knowledge.
Socrates was sentenced to death
at the age of 70 years for
corrupting the youth of Athens
31. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
Plato (428 – 348 BCE)
He was a classical Greek
philosopher and founder of the
Academy in Athens, the first
institution of higher learning in the
western world.
Along with his mentor, Socrates, and
his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to
lay the foundations of Western
philosophy.
Plato was originally a student of
Socrates, and was as influenced by his
thinking and unjust death.
32. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
Theory of forms
Everything in the empirical world
is an inferior manifestation of the
pure form, which exists in the
abstract.
Experience through our senses comes
from interaction of the pure form and
matter of the world
Result is an experience less than
perfect.
True knowledge can be attained only
through reason; rational thought
regarding the forms.
33. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The analogy of the divided line
Description of Plato’s view of
acquisition of true knowledge.
The analogy divides the world and
our states of mind into points along
a divided line.
An attempt to gain knowledge
through sensory experience is
doomed to ignorance or opinion.
Imagining is lowest form of
understanding
Direct experience with objects is
slightly better, but still just beliefs
or opinions.
34. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The analogy of the divided line
Contemplation of mathematical
relationships is better than
imagination and direct
experience.
Highest form of thinking involves
embracing the forms.
True knowledge and intelligence
comes only from understanding the
abstract forms.
The allegory of the cave
Demonstrates how difficult it is
to deliver humans from ignorance
35. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The reminiscence theory of
knowledge
How do we know the forms if we
cannot know them through
sensory experiences?
Prior to coming into the body, the
soul dwelt in pure, complete
knowledge.
Knowledge is innate and attained
only through introspection
Thus, all true knowledge comes only
from remembering the experiences
the soul had prior to entering the
body.
36. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The reminiscence theory of
knowledge
The reminiscence theory of
knowledge made Plato a
rationalist who stressed mental
operations to gain knowledge
already in the soul.
37. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The nature of the soul
Soul comprised of three parts
(tripartite)
Rational component
immortal, existed with the forms.
Courageous (emotional or
spirited) component
mortal emotions such as fear, rage,
and love
Appetite component
mortal needs such as hunger, thirst,
and sexual behavior that must be
satisfied
38. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The nature of the soul
To obtain knowledge, one must
suppress bodily needs and
concentrate on rational pursuits.
Job of rational component is to
postpone and inhibit immediate
gratification when it is in the
best long-term benefit of the
person.
39. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
The Republic
Plato described a utopian society
with three types of people
performing specific functions:
appetitive individuals – workers
and slaves.
courageous individuals –
soldiers.
rational individuals –
philosopher-kings.
40. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
Plato felt that all was
predetermined.
A complete nativist, people are
destined to be a slave, soldier, or
philosopher-king.
While asleep, the baser appetites
in people are fulfilled no matter
how rational they are while
awake
Plato is referring to dreams although
he does not mention them specifically.
41. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
B. Plato
Plato’s legacy
Because of his disdain for
empirical observation and
sensory experience as means of
gaining knowledge, he actually
inhibited progress in science.
Dualism in humans
42. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
A student of Plato and teacher of
Alexander the Great.
He was the first to create a
comprehensive system of Western
philosophy, encompassing morality and
aesthetics, logic and science, politics and
metaphysics.
Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises
and dialogues, but only about one-
third of the original works have
survived.
43. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle’s Legacy
Physical sciences
profoundly shaped medieval scholarship,
and its influence extended well into the
Renaissance, although ultimately
replaced by Newtonian Physics.
Biological sciences,
Some observations were confirmed to be
accurate only in the 19 C.
Logic
His work was incorporated into modern
formal logic.
44. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle’s Legacy
Metaphysics
He had a profound influence on
philosophical and theological thinking in
the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the
Middle Ages.
It continues to influence Christian
theology, especially Eastern Orthodox
theology, and the scholastic tradition of
the Roman Catholic Church.
All aspects of Aristotle's views
continue to be the object of active
academic study today.
45. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle and Plato contrasted.
Plato:
Essences (truths) in the forms that exist
independent of nature, known only by
using introspection (rationalism)
Aristotle
Essences could be known only by
studying nature through individual
observation of phenomena (empiricism).
Aristotle a rationalist and empiricist.
Mind employed to gain knowledge (rationalist),
object of the rational thought was information
from sensory experience (empiricism).
46. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle’s Lyceum
Located just outside the walls of ancient Athens
Before starting the Lyceum, Aristotle had studied for 19
years (366-347 BC) at Plato's Academy.
Head of his school until 323 BC
Athenians turned against the Alexandrian Empire upon
Alexander the Great’s death (his student 343- 335 BCE)
He left Athens fearing for his life, saying famously that "Athens
must not be allowed to sin twice against philosophy."
The school was sacked by Romans general
The location of the complex was lost for centuries, until it was
rediscovered in 1996, during excavations which revealed
foundations and few other remains.
47. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle’s four causes
Aristotle’s four causes, to understand
object or phenomenon, one must
know causes.
Material cause
matter of which it is made
Formal cause
form or pattern of the object – what is it?
Efficient cause
force that transforms the matter – who made it?
Final cause
purpose – why it exists.
48. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Aristotle’s causation, teleology,
and entelechy
Everything has a cause and purpose
Teleology, meaning that everything has
a function (entelechy) built into it.
Entelechy keeps an object moving and
developing in its prescribed direction to
full potential
Scala naturae is the idea that nature is
arranged in a hierarchy ranging from
neutral matter to the unmoved mover,
which is the cause of everything in
nature
49. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Hierarchy of souls: What gives
life:
Vegetative (nutritive) soul
Provides growth, assimilation of food,
and reproduction
Possessed by plants
Sensitive soul
Functions of vegetative soul plus the
ability to sense and respond to the
environment, experience pleasure and
pain, and use memory.
Possessed by animals.
50. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Hierarchy of souls:
Rational soul
Vegetative and sensitive souls plus
ability for thinking and rational thought.
Possessed by humans.
Sensation
From the five senses
Perception was explained by motion of
objects that stimulate a particular
sensory system.
We can trust our senses to yield an accurate
representation of the real world
environment
51. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Common sense, passive and active
reason.
Sensory information is only first step
in gaining knowledge – necessary
but not sufficient element in
obtaining knowledge.
Information from multiple sensory
systems must be combined for effective
interactions with the environment.
Common sense
Coordinates and synthesizes
information from all of the senses for
more meaningful and effective
experience.
52. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Common sense, passive and active
reason.
Passive reason
Uses synthesized experience to function
in everyday life
Active reason
Uses synthesized experience to abstract
principles and essences
Highest form of thinking
Active reason provides humans with
their entelechy
Purpose is to engage in active reason
Source of greatest pleasure.
53. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Unmoved Mover
Gave everything in nature its
purpose (entelechy)
Caused everything in nature, but was
not caused by anything itself
It set nature in motion and little else
It was a logical necessity, not a god
54. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Memory and recall
Remembering
Spontaneous recollection of a previous
experience
Recall
An actual mental search for a previous
experience
Practice of recall affected by laws
of association
Law of contiguity
Associate things that occurred close in time
and/or in same situations
55. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Law of similarity
Similar things are associated
Law of contrast
Opposite things are associated
Law of frequency
More often events occur together – stronger
the association
Associationism
Belief that associations can be used to
explain origins of ideas, memory, or how
complex ideas are formed from simple ones
Laws of association are basis for most
theories of learning and association.
56. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Imagination and dreaming
Imagination is the lingering effects
of sensory experience.
Dreams are images from past
experiences which are stimulated by
events inside and outside the body
Motivation and happiness
Happiness is doing what is natural
Fulfills one’s purpose
Purpose for humans is to think rationally
Humans are motivated by appetites but can
use rational powers to inhibit them.
57. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
C. Aristotle
Motivation and happiness
Conflicts arise between immediate
satisfaction and biological drives and
more remote rational goals.
Like most Greeks, Aristotle held self-
control and moderation as a high ideal.
The best life lived according to golden
mean (between excess and deficiency).
Emotions and selective perception
Emotions function to amplify any
existing tendency (behavior).
Influences perception to be selective.
58. III. SOCRATES, PLATO and ARISTOTLE
D. Greek Philosophy
Greek Philosophical Tradition
The Greek cosmologists broke loose
from the accepted traditions and
speculated; they also engaged in
critical discussion.
After Aristotle’s death, philosophers
either relied on teachings of past
authorities, particularly Aristotle, or
turned attention from descriptions of the
universe to models of human conduct.
The critical, questioning tradition of
the Greeks was not present until
revived in the Renaissance.