This document discusses S-parameters and various microwave components. It begins by explaining that S-parameters are used at microwave frequencies instead of voltage and current parameters, as they describe incident and reflected traveling waves. It then discusses various microwave devices including tees, magic tees, directional couplers, isolators, circulators, and waveguide components like bends and twists. Key properties and operating principles of each component are explained through diagrams and equations.
This document discusses various microwave hybrid circuits. It describes E-plane and H-plane tees, which are waveguide junctions with three ports. Magic tees combine properties of E-plane and H-plane tees. Hybrid rings consist of an annular waveguide with four ports, and exhibit similar properties to magic tees. Directional couplers and circulators are also microwave junctions discussed. S-parameters are introduced as a way to characterize microwave networks by measuring traveling waves rather than total voltages and currents.
Waveguide tees are used in microwave technologies to split or extract power in a waveguide. There are several types of waveguide tees that affect the energy in different ways, including H-type, E-type, magic T, and hybrid ring tees. E-type tees produce outputs that are 180 degrees out of phase, while H-type tees produce in-phase outputs. Magic T tees combine properties of H-type and E-type tees. Hybrid ring tees overcome power limitations of magic T tees using a circular waveguide design.
1) The document presents information about a magic tee, which is a waveguide component used in microwave engineering systems.
2) A magic tee has four ports and is able to split or combine signals passing through in specific ways depending on which port is used.
3) The document discusses the working, operation, and S-matrix of a magic tee. It also provides examples of how magic tees can be used for applications like impedance measurement, duplexing, and mixing.
The document describes a seminar report on magic tees. It includes an introduction to magic tees, their structure and operation. It also provides background information on simulating a magic tee using FEKO software. The simulation examined standing wave patterns and S-parameters when either the sigma or delta port was driven. Finally, the document discusses different types of tee junctions including E-plane and H-plane tees as well as their scattering matrices. In summary, the report examines magic tees through simulation and analysis of their properties and scattering parameters.
Microwave hybrid circuits consist of microwave devices connected to transmit microwave signals as desired. Common microwave junction components include waveguide tees like E-plane, H-plane, and magic tees. Microwave networks were traditionally characterized using H, Y, and Z parameters, but S parameters became more common at microwave frequencies since they describe traveling waves. Key microwave components also include directional couplers, waveguide corners, bends, and twists which are used to change the guide direction while minimizing reflections.
This document discusses microwave junctions and S-parameters. It provides information on:
1) Power dividers and directional couplers which are passive microwave components used for power division or combining. S-parameters are used to define the power relationships between ports.
2) The scattering matrix (S-matrix) is a matrix that defines the power relationships between ports in terms of incident and reflected voltage waves. It is commonly used for microwave analysis since direct voltage and current measurements are difficult at high frequencies.
3) Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating S-matrix coefficients for different microwave junction configurations like E-plane and H-plane tee junctions. Properties of reciprocal and lossless networks in relation to the S
S-parameters are a useful method for representing a circuit as a "black box" whose external behavior can be predicted without knowledge of its internal contents. S-parameters are measured by sending a signal into the black box and detecting the waves that exit each port. They depend on the network, source and load impedances, and measurement frequency. Common S-parameters include S11 for the reflected signal at port 1 and S21 for the signal exiting port 2 due to a signal entering port 1.
Microwave engineering involves the design of communication and navigation systems that operate in the microwave frequency range. Key topics in microwave engineering include microwave networks, scattering parameters, power dividers, couplers, filters, and amplifiers. Microwave systems have applications in areas like microwave ovens, radar, satellite communications, and personal communication systems.
This document discusses various microwave hybrid circuits. It describes E-plane and H-plane tees, which are waveguide junctions with three ports. Magic tees combine properties of E-plane and H-plane tees. Hybrid rings consist of an annular waveguide with four ports, and exhibit similar properties to magic tees. Directional couplers and circulators are also microwave junctions discussed. S-parameters are introduced as a way to characterize microwave networks by measuring traveling waves rather than total voltages and currents.
Waveguide tees are used in microwave technologies to split or extract power in a waveguide. There are several types of waveguide tees that affect the energy in different ways, including H-type, E-type, magic T, and hybrid ring tees. E-type tees produce outputs that are 180 degrees out of phase, while H-type tees produce in-phase outputs. Magic T tees combine properties of H-type and E-type tees. Hybrid ring tees overcome power limitations of magic T tees using a circular waveguide design.
1) The document presents information about a magic tee, which is a waveguide component used in microwave engineering systems.
2) A magic tee has four ports and is able to split or combine signals passing through in specific ways depending on which port is used.
3) The document discusses the working, operation, and S-matrix of a magic tee. It also provides examples of how magic tees can be used for applications like impedance measurement, duplexing, and mixing.
The document describes a seminar report on magic tees. It includes an introduction to magic tees, their structure and operation. It also provides background information on simulating a magic tee using FEKO software. The simulation examined standing wave patterns and S-parameters when either the sigma or delta port was driven. Finally, the document discusses different types of tee junctions including E-plane and H-plane tees as well as their scattering matrices. In summary, the report examines magic tees through simulation and analysis of their properties and scattering parameters.
Microwave hybrid circuits consist of microwave devices connected to transmit microwave signals as desired. Common microwave junction components include waveguide tees like E-plane, H-plane, and magic tees. Microwave networks were traditionally characterized using H, Y, and Z parameters, but S parameters became more common at microwave frequencies since they describe traveling waves. Key microwave components also include directional couplers, waveguide corners, bends, and twists which are used to change the guide direction while minimizing reflections.
This document discusses microwave junctions and S-parameters. It provides information on:
1) Power dividers and directional couplers which are passive microwave components used for power division or combining. S-parameters are used to define the power relationships between ports.
2) The scattering matrix (S-matrix) is a matrix that defines the power relationships between ports in terms of incident and reflected voltage waves. It is commonly used for microwave analysis since direct voltage and current measurements are difficult at high frequencies.
3) Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating S-matrix coefficients for different microwave junction configurations like E-plane and H-plane tee junctions. Properties of reciprocal and lossless networks in relation to the S
S-parameters are a useful method for representing a circuit as a "black box" whose external behavior can be predicted without knowledge of its internal contents. S-parameters are measured by sending a signal into the black box and detecting the waves that exit each port. They depend on the network, source and load impedances, and measurement frequency. Common S-parameters include S11 for the reflected signal at port 1 and S21 for the signal exiting port 2 due to a signal entering port 1.
Microwave engineering involves the design of communication and navigation systems that operate in the microwave frequency range. Key topics in microwave engineering include microwave networks, scattering parameters, power dividers, couplers, filters, and amplifiers. Microwave systems have applications in areas like microwave ovens, radar, satellite communications, and personal communication systems.
Microwave cavities are metallic enclosures that confine electromagnetic energy and act as resonant circuits. Three common cavity types are rectangular, circular, and reentrant cavities. Cavities support multiple resonant modes with distinct frequencies. The lowest frequency mode is dominant. Cavities can achieve very high quality factors up to 106 due to low losses. Cavity resonators are equivalent to LC circuits and can be modeled as such. The quality factor Q is a measure of frequency selectivity and depends on energy stored versus dissipated in a cycle. Cavities are coupled to external circuits which affects their loaded Q factor and coupling coefficient.
A transformer is a device that changes alternating current (ac) electric power at one voltage level to ac power at another voltage level through magnetic induction. It consists of two or more coils wound around a core and linked by a magnetic field. An ideal transformer has no losses and the power input equals the power output. Real transformers have losses due to winding resistance, core losses, and leakage fluxes. The performance of real transformers can be modeled using an equivalent circuit with parameters determined from open-circuit and short-circuit tests. Transformer voltage regulation and efficiency are important performance metrics.
This document provides an overview of mobile robot platforms and navigation methods. It discusses line follower robots and their basic components like sensors, control logic and drive systems. Specifically, it describes how a simple line follower robot can be built using an LED and LDR pair as sensors, interfaced with an NPN transistor for control logic and a DC motor for locomotion. Design considerations like sensor placement, transistor selection and motor specifications are covered.
Microwave couplers are passive devices that divide and distribute power between transmission lines. There are different types of couplers including directional couplers, hybrid couplers, and Lange couplers. Key specifications for couplers include coupling factor, isolation factor, directivity, and losses. Recent developments aim to reduce size and increase bandwidth, such as using novel phase inverter designs in hybrid couplers.
This document provides reading material for electrical and electronics engineering students studying electrical machines II at RGPV affiliated colleges. It covers the syllabus for the unit on DC machines, including the basic construction of DC machines, types of excitation, armature and field windings, EMF equations, armature reaction and methods to limit it, commutation processes, performance of DC generators, and different types of DC motors like metadyne, amplidyne, permanent magnet, and brushless motors. The topics are explained over several pages with diagrams and examples. Key concepts covered are the magnetic circuits, armature and commutator construction, separately excited and self-excited machines, wave and lap windings, EMF equations, ar
Directional couplers ppt for microwave engineeringDivya Shree
Directional couplers are passive microwave devices that divide power and distribute it through multiple ports. They have four ports: input, through, coupled, and isolated. Power entering the input port splits between the through and coupled ports, with some power coupled out through the coupled port. Directional couplers are characterized by their coupling factor, directivity, and isolation factor. They are used in applications such as power monitoring, signal sampling, and reflection coefficient measurements.
The document discusses thyristors (also called SCRs). It describes thyristors as 4-layer 3-junction semiconductor devices that can be turned on by applying a gate current. Once on, the gate loses control and it remains on until the anode current drops below the holding current level. The document summarizes the construction, working principles, static and switching characteristics of thyristors including forward and reverse operation, latching/holding currents, turn on/off times. It also discusses different firing circuits used to trigger thyristors like R, RC, and UJT triggering.
A directional coupler is a passive device that couples part of the transmission power from one transmission line to another. It has four ports: input, transmitted, coupled, and isolated. Key parameters are coupling factor, loss, isolation, and directivity. Directional couplers are commonly used to monitor power and frequency without interrupting the main signal, for frequency and power measurements, and combining signals to a receiver when isolation is high.
This document outlines a project to design a 180-degree hybrid coupler. It discusses the limitations of conventional 180-degree hybrid designs in terms of compactness and bandwidth. It then proposes several novel design methodologies to address these limitations, including using a Wilkinson power divider design, phase reversal methods, folded line configurations, and artificial transmission lines with left-handed materials. The goal is to develop a more compact and broadband 180-degree hybrid coupler design.
The document contains the answers to multiple questions from an Industrial Electronics exam for a Mechanical Engineering course.
1) It provides the voltage-current characteristics of an SCR, explaining its forward and reverse breakdown voltages.
2) It compares series and parallel inverters based on 5 differences such as commutation class, need for resonant circuit, distortion level, use of feedback, and output wave shape.
3) It explains the functions of the address bus and data bus in an 8085 microprocessor, noting that the address bus selects memory/I/O devices while the data bus is multiplexed with the address bus.
This document defines key electrical concepts and terms, including current, voltage, resistance, Ohm's law, and types of electricity like DC and AC. It explains how to measure electrical quantities like voltage, current, resistance, and power using instruments like multimeters and megohmmeters. Kirchhoff's laws and concepts like resistance in series and parallel circuits are also covered. The goal is to provide fundamentals of electricity and basics of electrical measurement.
This article discusses different power electronics devices that are in use like power diodes, power thyristors, power transistors, IGBT, GTO, IGCT and others. This article will give a basic view of these devices and their operations.
The document provides details about the syllabus for the course EE2301 Power Electronics. It includes 5 units:
1) Power Semiconductor Devices
2) Phase-Controlled Converters
3) DC to DC Converters
4) Inverters
5) AC to AC Converters
It lists the topics that will be covered in each unit along with the total number of periods (45) and references textbooks that will be used. It also provides short questions and answers related to the first two units on power semiconductor devices and phase-controlled converters.
The document discusses various linear and nonlinear applications of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It describes how op-amps can be used in linear circuits such as voltage followers, differential amplifiers, and instrumentation amplifiers where there is a linear relationship between input and output. It also discusses nonlinear op-amp circuits like precision rectifiers and comparators where the relationship is nonlinear. Circuits like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, adders, and subtractors are analyzed to derive expressions for their voltage gains and operation. The document explains concepts like virtual ground used in analyzing op-amp circuits.
This document contains questions and answers related to power electronics devices and converters. It begins with definitions of key power electronics terms:
- IGBT is popular due to lower switching losses and smaller snubber circuit requirements.
- Thyristors can be turned on through forward voltage, gate, dv/dt, temperature, or light triggering.
- Power diodes have higher voltage, current, and power ratings than signal diodes due to a drift region construction.
- IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and power BJTs are voltage, voltage, and current controlled devices respectively due to how their output current is controlled by their input signals.
- There are N-channel and P-channel
- The document discusses alternating current (AC) and its generation using a simple AC generator. AC voltage and current change polarity and magnitude at regular time intervals.
- Key terms related to AC quantities are defined, including cycle, time period, frequency, peak value, average value, and root mean square (RMS) value. The frequency of power supply in India is 50 Hz.
- Behavior of AC circuits containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance is examined. Current and voltage are in phase for resistance. For inductance, current lags voltage by 90 degrees, while for capacitance current leads voltage by 90 degrees.
Network analysis of rf and microwave circuitsShankar Gangaju
This document discusses microwave network analysis and two-port network analysis. It begins by defining a microwave network as consisting of microwave devices and components coupled by transmission lines. It then discusses that at microwave frequencies, circuit analysis techniques like KCL and KVL cannot be used and S-parameters provide an alternative. The document defines S-parameters as a way to characterize networks using normalized power waves rather than voltages and currents. It provides properties and definitions of S-parameters for two-port networks, including what S11, S12, S21, and S22 represent. It also discusses uses of S-parameters and scattering matrices for modeling networks.
Microwave cavities are metallic enclosures that confine electromagnetic energy and act as resonant circuits. Three common cavity types are rectangular, circular, and reentrant cavities. Cavities support multiple resonant modes with distinct frequencies. The lowest frequency mode is dominant. Cavities can achieve very high quality factors up to 106 due to low losses. Cavity resonators are equivalent to LC circuits and can be modeled as such. The quality factor Q is a measure of frequency selectivity and depends on energy stored versus dissipated in a cycle. Cavities are coupled to external circuits which affects their loaded Q factor and coupling coefficient.
A transformer is a device that changes alternating current (ac) electric power at one voltage level to ac power at another voltage level through magnetic induction. It consists of two or more coils wound around a core and linked by a magnetic field. An ideal transformer has no losses and the power input equals the power output. Real transformers have losses due to winding resistance, core losses, and leakage fluxes. The performance of real transformers can be modeled using an equivalent circuit with parameters determined from open-circuit and short-circuit tests. Transformer voltage regulation and efficiency are important performance metrics.
This document provides an overview of mobile robot platforms and navigation methods. It discusses line follower robots and their basic components like sensors, control logic and drive systems. Specifically, it describes how a simple line follower robot can be built using an LED and LDR pair as sensors, interfaced with an NPN transistor for control logic and a DC motor for locomotion. Design considerations like sensor placement, transistor selection and motor specifications are covered.
Microwave couplers are passive devices that divide and distribute power between transmission lines. There are different types of couplers including directional couplers, hybrid couplers, and Lange couplers. Key specifications for couplers include coupling factor, isolation factor, directivity, and losses. Recent developments aim to reduce size and increase bandwidth, such as using novel phase inverter designs in hybrid couplers.
This document provides reading material for electrical and electronics engineering students studying electrical machines II at RGPV affiliated colleges. It covers the syllabus for the unit on DC machines, including the basic construction of DC machines, types of excitation, armature and field windings, EMF equations, armature reaction and methods to limit it, commutation processes, performance of DC generators, and different types of DC motors like metadyne, amplidyne, permanent magnet, and brushless motors. The topics are explained over several pages with diagrams and examples. Key concepts covered are the magnetic circuits, armature and commutator construction, separately excited and self-excited machines, wave and lap windings, EMF equations, ar
Directional couplers ppt for microwave engineeringDivya Shree
Directional couplers are passive microwave devices that divide power and distribute it through multiple ports. They have four ports: input, through, coupled, and isolated. Power entering the input port splits between the through and coupled ports, with some power coupled out through the coupled port. Directional couplers are characterized by their coupling factor, directivity, and isolation factor. They are used in applications such as power monitoring, signal sampling, and reflection coefficient measurements.
The document discusses thyristors (also called SCRs). It describes thyristors as 4-layer 3-junction semiconductor devices that can be turned on by applying a gate current. Once on, the gate loses control and it remains on until the anode current drops below the holding current level. The document summarizes the construction, working principles, static and switching characteristics of thyristors including forward and reverse operation, latching/holding currents, turn on/off times. It also discusses different firing circuits used to trigger thyristors like R, RC, and UJT triggering.
A directional coupler is a passive device that couples part of the transmission power from one transmission line to another. It has four ports: input, transmitted, coupled, and isolated. Key parameters are coupling factor, loss, isolation, and directivity. Directional couplers are commonly used to monitor power and frequency without interrupting the main signal, for frequency and power measurements, and combining signals to a receiver when isolation is high.
This document outlines a project to design a 180-degree hybrid coupler. It discusses the limitations of conventional 180-degree hybrid designs in terms of compactness and bandwidth. It then proposes several novel design methodologies to address these limitations, including using a Wilkinson power divider design, phase reversal methods, folded line configurations, and artificial transmission lines with left-handed materials. The goal is to develop a more compact and broadband 180-degree hybrid coupler design.
The document contains the answers to multiple questions from an Industrial Electronics exam for a Mechanical Engineering course.
1) It provides the voltage-current characteristics of an SCR, explaining its forward and reverse breakdown voltages.
2) It compares series and parallel inverters based on 5 differences such as commutation class, need for resonant circuit, distortion level, use of feedback, and output wave shape.
3) It explains the functions of the address bus and data bus in an 8085 microprocessor, noting that the address bus selects memory/I/O devices while the data bus is multiplexed with the address bus.
This document defines key electrical concepts and terms, including current, voltage, resistance, Ohm's law, and types of electricity like DC and AC. It explains how to measure electrical quantities like voltage, current, resistance, and power using instruments like multimeters and megohmmeters. Kirchhoff's laws and concepts like resistance in series and parallel circuits are also covered. The goal is to provide fundamentals of electricity and basics of electrical measurement.
This article discusses different power electronics devices that are in use like power diodes, power thyristors, power transistors, IGBT, GTO, IGCT and others. This article will give a basic view of these devices and their operations.
The document provides details about the syllabus for the course EE2301 Power Electronics. It includes 5 units:
1) Power Semiconductor Devices
2) Phase-Controlled Converters
3) DC to DC Converters
4) Inverters
5) AC to AC Converters
It lists the topics that will be covered in each unit along with the total number of periods (45) and references textbooks that will be used. It also provides short questions and answers related to the first two units on power semiconductor devices and phase-controlled converters.
The document discusses various linear and nonlinear applications of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It describes how op-amps can be used in linear circuits such as voltage followers, differential amplifiers, and instrumentation amplifiers where there is a linear relationship between input and output. It also discusses nonlinear op-amp circuits like precision rectifiers and comparators where the relationship is nonlinear. Circuits like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, adders, and subtractors are analyzed to derive expressions for their voltage gains and operation. The document explains concepts like virtual ground used in analyzing op-amp circuits.
This document contains questions and answers related to power electronics devices and converters. It begins with definitions of key power electronics terms:
- IGBT is popular due to lower switching losses and smaller snubber circuit requirements.
- Thyristors can be turned on through forward voltage, gate, dv/dt, temperature, or light triggering.
- Power diodes have higher voltage, current, and power ratings than signal diodes due to a drift region construction.
- IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and power BJTs are voltage, voltage, and current controlled devices respectively due to how their output current is controlled by their input signals.
- There are N-channel and P-channel
- The document discusses alternating current (AC) and its generation using a simple AC generator. AC voltage and current change polarity and magnitude at regular time intervals.
- Key terms related to AC quantities are defined, including cycle, time period, frequency, peak value, average value, and root mean square (RMS) value. The frequency of power supply in India is 50 Hz.
- Behavior of AC circuits containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance is examined. Current and voltage are in phase for resistance. For inductance, current lags voltage by 90 degrees, while for capacitance current leads voltage by 90 degrees.
Network analysis of rf and microwave circuitsShankar Gangaju
This document discusses microwave network analysis and two-port network analysis. It begins by defining a microwave network as consisting of microwave devices and components coupled by transmission lines. It then discusses that at microwave frequencies, circuit analysis techniques like KCL and KVL cannot be used and S-parameters provide an alternative. The document defines S-parameters as a way to characterize networks using normalized power waves rather than voltages and currents. It provides properties and definitions of S-parameters for two-port networks, including what S11, S12, S21, and S22 represent. It also discusses uses of S-parameters and scattering matrices for modeling networks.
This document discusses microwave devices, specifically directional couplers and isolators. It begins by defining microwaves and their applications such as telecommunications and radar. It then describes how directional couplers are passive devices that divide power through four ports and discusses their key figures of merit like coupling factor, isolation, and directivity. Isolators are also covered as two-port non-reciprocal devices that allow high power transmission in one direction while providing high attenuation in the opposite direction using Faraday rotation in a ferrite rod.
This document discusses transmission lines and their parameters. It begins by introducing common types of transmission lines including two-wire lines, coaxial cables, and waveguides. It then describes how a transmission line can be modeled as a series of lumped inductors and shunt capacitors, known as the transmission line parameters. These parameters include the series resistance R', inductance L', shunt conductance G', and capacitance C' per unit length. Using these parameters, expressions are derived for the characteristic impedance Z0 and propagation constant γ of the transmission line.
3rd UNIT Microwave Engineering PPT.pptxShaikShahin7
This document discusses microwave engineering and microwave cavity resonators. It provides details on:
- Microwave cavity resonators, which confine electromagnetic energy inside a metallic enclosure. The resonant frequency depends on the equivalent capacitance, inductance, and resistance of the cavity.
- Rectangular waveguide cavity resonators, which are constructed by shorting both ends of a closed waveguide section to form a cavity.
- The different modes resonant cavities can support and how maximum energy is stored at the resonant frequency.
- Common coupling mechanisms like probe coupling and loop coupling to feed or extract signals from the resonator.
The document discusses tunnel diodes and their operation. It explains that tunnel diodes use quantum tunneling effects to allow electrons to pass through a potential barrier. The document then provides energy band diagrams and descriptions of tunnel diode operation under forward and reverse bias. It discusses their applications as oscillators, switches, logic devices and amplifiers. The document also compares tunnel diodes to conventional PN diodes and describes other specialized electronic devices like varactor diodes and photodiodes.
Transmission lines and waveguides -Two marksDr.SHANTHI K.G
This document contains a set of two-mark questions and answers related to transmission lines and waveguides. Some key points:
- It defines lumped and distributed circuits, and lists common types of transmission lines.
- Transmission line parameters and primary/secondary constants are defined. An infinite line and its properties are described.
- Concepts like wavelength, phase and group velocity, and expressions for characteristic impedance and propagation constant are covered.
- Line loading techniques including continuous, lumped, and patch loading are summarized. Standing waves, reflection coefficient, input impedance of open/short circuits are discussed.
The document provides concise explanations and equations for various core transmission line concepts in a
EC8651 Transmissions lines and RF systems-two marksDr.SHANTHI K.G
This document contains a set of two-mark questions and answers related to transmission lines and waveguides. Some key points covered include:
- The definitions of lumped and distributed circuits, different types of transmission lines, and primary and secondary transmission line parameters.
- Concepts like characteristic impedance, propagation constant, attenuation constant, phase constant, wavelength, phase and group velocities.
- Expressions for these parameters and constants in terms of the primary constants R, L, G, and C.
- Concepts of infinite lines, reflection, standing waves, reflection coefficient, reflection factor, and reflection loss.
- Methods to avoid distortion in transmission lines like using equalizers and coaxial cables
The document discusses several special purpose electronic devices:
1. Tunnel diodes use the quantum mechanical effect of tunneling to allow electrons to pass through a thin potential barrier, enabling very fast operation into the microwave frequency region.
2. Varactor diodes have a capacitance that can be varied by changing the reverse bias voltage, making them useful for tuning radio frequency circuits.
3. Photodiodes convert light into an electric current or voltage, using the photoelectric effect to generate electron-hole pairs when photons strike the p-n junction. They are used in light sensors, optocouplers, and optical communications.
4. SCRs are thyristors that act as electrically controlled switches, conducting
This document provides information about PN junction diodes and their characteristics:
1) It describes how a PN junction is formed by combining P-type and N-type semiconductors, forming a depletion region.
2) It explains the I-V characteristics of a diode under forward and reverse bias, including how the depletion region changes with bias.
3) Additional topics covered include drift and diffusion currents, temperature effects, capacitance effects, and recovery time characteristics important for switching applications. Special diodes like Zener diodes are also introduced.
This document provides an overview of semiconductors, diodes, transistors, and power devices. It discusses the energy band structure of semiconductors and classifications of intrinsic, n-type, and p-type semiconductors. The document then covers the theory and characteristics of PN junction diodes under forward and reverse bias conditions. Applications of diodes as rectifiers, clippers, and clampers are also discussed. Bipolar junction transistors and their biasing are introduced. Finally, the document discusses types of power converters including AC to DC converters using diode rectifiers and phase controlled rectifiers, as well as DC to DC converters.
Here are the key steps to solve this example:
1) The characteristic impedance of RG-58A/U is 53.5 Ω.
2) The load impedance is 40 + j30 Ω.
3) Plot 40 Ω on the resistance circle and 30 Ω on the reactance circle.
4) The intersection point gives the impedance seen by the transmitter.
So in summary, to find the impedance seen by the transmitter with a load of 40 + j30 Ω connected to a 53.5 Ω transmission line, we plot the points on the Smith Chart and find their intersection.
This document provides an overview of semiconductor devices and digital logic circuits. It discusses:
1. Semiconductors including intrinsic and extrinsic types, N-type and P-type materials, and the energy band structure.
2. PN junction diodes including the theory of operation, I-V characteristics under forward and reverse bias, and applications as rectifiers.
3. Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) including transistor biasing and operation.
4. Digital logic circuit design including realization of logic expressions using gates, combinational logic design methods like SOP and POS forms, Karnaugh maps, and introduction to FPGAs.
The Biot-Savart law describes the magnetic field generated by electric currents. It states that the magnetic field at a point P is proportional to the current I and inversely proportional to the distance r from the current element ds. Specifically, the field is given by the equation dB = (μ0I/4πr2)ds x r̂, where μ0 is the permeability of free space. This law can be used to calculate the magnetic fields generated by various current distributions like long straight wires, circular loops, and coils.
The Biot-Savart law describes the magnetic field generated by electric currents. It states that the magnetic field at a point P due to a current element I ds is proportional to the current I and inversely proportional to the distance r from the current element to the point P. The field is also proportional to the length of the current element ds and perpendicular to both r and ds. Integrating this contribution from all current elements gives the total magnetic field generated by the current distribution. Specific applications include calculating the field from a long straight wire, circular loop, and tightly wound coil.
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor that is capable of very fast operation, well into the microwave frequency region, made possible by the use of the quantum mechanical effect called tunneling.
It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for discovering the electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came up with the idea of a tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from pursuing it.[1]
These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction only some 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side
Tunnel diodes were first manufactured by Sony in 1957[2] followed by General Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume today.[3] Tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made from gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They are used in frequency converters and detectors.[4] They have negative differential resistance in part of their operating range, and therefore are also used as oscillators, amplifiers, and in switching circuits using hysteresis.
Figure 6: 8–12 GHz tunnel diode amplifier, circa 1970
In 1977, the Intelsat V satellite receiver used a microstrip tunnel diode amplifier (TDA) front-end in the 14 to 15.5 GHz band. Such amplifiers were considered state-of-the-art, with better performance at high frequencies than any transistor-based front end.[5]
The highest frequency room-temperature solid-state oscillators are based on the resonant-tunneling diode (RTD).[6]
There is another type of tunnel diode called a metal–insulator–metal (MIM) diode, but present application appears restricted to research environments due to inherent sensitivities.[7] There is also a metal–insulator–insulator–metal MIIM diode which has an additional insulator layer. The additional insulator layer allows "step tunneling" for precise diode control.[8]
The document discusses semiconductor diodes and their applications. It explains how a p-n junction is formed and the barrier potential that is set up. It describes the forward and reverse biasing of diodes and how this affects conduction. The voltage-current characteristics of ideal diodes and real diodes are examined. Applications of diodes include rectification, clipping, and clamping in circuits. Half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits are explained.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in electricity including:
1. Electric current is the flow of electrons through a conductor. Current is measured in amperes and flows from positive to negative terminals.
2. An electric circuit is a closed loop that allows current to flow. A circuit includes a power source, conducting wires, and components like light bulbs.
3. Resistance is a material's opposition to current flow. It is measured in ohms and depends on a material's length, cross-sectional area, and resistivity.
The document discusses the theory of solids, specifically semiconductors, conductors, and insulators. It describes the energy band structure and forbidden energy gaps that determine whether a material is a semiconductor, conductor, or insulator. It also discusses PN junction diodes, their I-V characteristics, and applications in rectifiers. Transistors are also briefly introduced.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
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3. • All these network parameters relate total voltages and total
currents at each of the two ports.
• But at microwave frequency, these parameters can not be
used.
3
4. • At microwave frequency, two independent quantities
required for each waveguide terminal are an incident and
a reflected wave replacing voltage and current.
• Suppose that incident and reflected voltages waves on
the input guide are given in magnitude and phase at the
chosen reference plane by V1+ and V1-. Similarly incident
and reflected voltages waves on the reference plane two
is given by V2+ and V2-.
• It is common to normalize incident and reflected waves
as follows:
4
5. • The logical variables to use at the microwave
frequencies are travelling wave rather than total voltages
and total currents.
• These are S-parameters which are expressed as
5
6. • In general, the voltages at the terminals of the device
can be written as, Vn = an+bn.
• Scattering coefficients are then defined, such that the
voltage wave bi leaving the ‘i’ port owing to a voltage
wave aj incident upon the ‘j’ port when no waves enter
any of the other ports of the device is given by, bi=Sij aj.
• In general, when a voltage is incident upon all of the ‘n’
ports of the device, each incident voltage will make a
contribution to the total resultant voltage wave reflecting
from the ‘i’ port.
bi =Si1 a1 + Si2 a2+………..+ Sin an
6
7. • Now there are reflecting waves from ‘n’ ports, the set of
scattering equations
b1 =S11 a1 + S12 a2+………..+ S1n an
b2 =S21 a1 + S22 a2+………..+ S2n an
………………………………………………………………………
bn =Sn1 a1 + Sn2 a2+………..+ Snn an
• The diagonal element Sij of the scattering matrix is the
reflection coefficient at the ‘j’ port and represents the
reflected voltage wave which would be observed at this
port with an incident voltage wave of unit magnitude and
zero phase, when all the other ports are terminated in
matched impedances and hence no waves are reflected
back into the other ports.
7
8. Properties of S parameters
Consider the N-port network shown in Figure, where V+ is
the amplitude of the voltage wave incident on port n and V−
is the amplitude of the voltage wave reflected from port n.
8
9. The scattering matrix is defined as
A specific element of the scattering matrix can be
determined as
9
10. Reciprocal Networks and Lossless Networks
It can be shown that the scattering matrix for a reciprocal
network is symmetric, and that the scattering matrix for a
lossless network is unitary.
10
11. so the scattering matrix is symmetric for reciprocal
networks.If the network is lossless, no real power can be delivered to
the network. Thus, if the characteristic impedances of all the
ports are identical and assumed to be unity, the average
power delivered to the network is
11
12. For a lossless junction, the incident and reflected powers are
equal
so that, for
nonzero
A matrix that satisfies the above condition is called a unitary
matrix.
The matrix equation can be written in summation form as
If i = j
12
13. while if i = j
The above equations state that the dot product of any
column of [S] with the conjugate of that same column gives
unity, while the dot product of any column with the conjugate
of a different column gives zero (the columns are
orthonormal).
13
14. Waveguide Tees
E Plane tees:
Axis of its side arm is parallel to the E field
of the main guide
Collinear arms are symmetric about the
side arm
Input Output
Port 3- Port 1 and port 2 –
opposite
phase & same
magnitude (subtraction)
S13 = -S23 (both have signs)
MULTIPORT JUNCTION USED AS POWER COMBINER, POWER DIVIDER AND
POWER MONITORS
14
16. H Plane tees:
A waveguide tee in which the axis
of its side arm is perpendicular to
the E-field or parallel to the H-field of
the main guide.
Input Output
Port 3- Port 1 and port 2 –
same phase & same
magnitude (additive)
S13 = S23
16
19. Characteristics
1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same
phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the output
will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (H arm), it will be
divided equally between port 1 and port 2 of the
collinear arms and will not appear at port 3 (E
arm).
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (E arm), it will
produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. Output at
port 4 is zero i.e S43 = S34 = 0.
19
20. 4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at
port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the other
collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E arm
causes a phase delay while the H arm causes the
phase advance. i.e S12 = S21 = 0.
S matrix of magic tee is
20
22. Directional coupler
• A directional coupler is a passive device which
couples part of the transmission power by a known
amount out through another port, often by using
two transmission lines set close enough together
such that energy passing through one is coupled to
the other.
• The device has four ports: input, transmitted,
coupled, and isolated. The term "main line" refers to
the section between ports 1 and 2.
• Common properties desired for all directional
couplers are wide operational bandwidth, high
directivity, and a good impedance match at all ports
when the other ports are terminated in matched
loads. 22
24. Bethe-hole directional coupler
• One of the most common, and simplest, waveguide directional couplers.
• This consists of two parallel waveguides, one stacked on top of the other, with a
hole between them.
• Some of the power from one guide is launched through the hole into the other.
24
Figure: Multi Hole Directional Coupler
25. Cont…
• The concept of the Bethe-hole coupler can be extended by
providing multiple holes. The holes are spaced λ/4 apart.
• The hole size is chosen to give the desired coupling between
two waveguides.
• Design criteria are to achieve a substantially flat coupling
together with high directivity over the desired band.
25
26. Properties of Directional Coupler
• A portion of power travelling from port 1 to port 2 is coupled to port 4
but does not go to port 3.
• A portion of power travelling from port 2 to port 1 is coupled to port 3
but does not go to port 4.
• Ports 1 and 3 are isolated and Ports 2 and 4 are isolated from each
other.
26
27. How does it separate the incident wave and
reflected wave for power measurements?
• Directivity is coupler's ability to separate the forward and backward
waves. That is separation of incident and reflected waves.
• Some part of Incident wave at port 1 goes to the port 4. because port 1
and 3 are isolated.
• Now if there are reflections from port 2 , that reflected wave will go to
port 3 only, because port 2 and 4 are isolated.
• So port 3 will have only part of reflected voltage and port 4 will have only
part of incident voltage.
27
28. Performance Parameters
• Coupling Factor: How much of incident power is being coupled for the measurement
purposes.
• Directivity: It is measure of how well the directional coupler distinguishes between
the forward and reverse travelling waves.
• Isolation: It is the sum of Coupling factor and Directivity in dB.
28
29. S-matrix of directional coupler
• In a directional coupler all four ports are completely matched. Thus the diagonal
elements of the S matrix are zero.
• There is no coupling between port 1 and port 3 and between port 2 and port 4, thus
29
30. • Thus the S matrix of the directional coupler becomes,
• Using the symmetry and unitary properties of S parameter, it
becomes
30
31. • Several types of directional coupler are exit. Such as a two
hole directional coupler, four hole directional coupler etc.
31
32. Isolator
RF isolator is a two port ferromagnetic
passive device which is used to protect other
RF components from excessive signal
reflection.
The interaction of the magnetic field to the
ferrite material inside isolators and circulators.
The rotary field is very strong and will cause
any RF/microwave signals in the frequency band
of interest at one port to follow the magnetic
flow to the adjacent port and not in the
opposite direction.
32
33. Farady’s Rotation Principle
• “The rotation of direction of E-field of a linearly polarized wave occurs
when passing through a ferrite medium.”
•When the wave travels
through one wavelength in
ferrite material ,E field vector
of LP wave rotates through
an angle given by,
33
35. Construction of Isolator
• It uses a Faraday rotation of 45°. For this
circular waveguide is used and a cylindrical
ferrite rod is placed along the axis of
circular waveguide.
• The ferrite rod is magnetized with static
magnetic field along the axis of waveguide.
• The circular waveguide is excited in
dominant mode TE11. Thus across the c/s
of the ferrite rod, field is linearly polarized.
• The length of ferrite rod and static magnetic
field is chosen such that E field vector gets
rotated by 45°.
35
36. Construction of Isolator
• At both the input and output ends, the circular waveguide is tapered to the
rectangular waveguide sections.
• The orientation of input and output rectangular waveguides are at 45° to each other.
• The resistive cards are placed near the input and output ports and they are parallel
to the broad walls of the rectangular sections.
• Resistive card at port 2 is also displaced 45° with respect to the input card.
36
37. Operation of Isolator
• A wave incident at port 1 has fixed E field direction. This excites TE11 mode in
circular waveguide.
• The E field of TE11 mode is perpendicular to the resistive card numbered 1.
hence power incident at port 1 is not affected by resistive card.
• Then wave encounters the magnetized ferrite rod and the direction of E field
gets rotated by 45° clockwise.
• Since the orientation of port 2 and resistive card 2 is fixed at angle of 45
clockwise to port 1, the E field remains perpendicular to the resistive card 2.
• Power transmitted from 1 to 2 remains unattenuated.
37
38. Cont.
• In 2nd case, the reflected signal will have E field direction such that it is unaffected
by resistive card 2.
• While travelling along ferrite rod , it will have rotation of 45 clockwise.
• After this rotation , E field lines become parallel to the resistive card 1 and power is
absorbed in this card.
• Therefore, power travelling from 2 to 1 gets completely attenuated inside the
isolator.
38
39. Circulator
• It is a 4-port microwave low power device which allows the power flow
only from port 1 to 2, or port 2 to 3, or port 3 to 4, or port 4 to1 in
clockwise direction.
39
41. Construction of 4-port Circulator
41
• It uses a magnetized ferrite rod to provide a 45° rotation of E
field with the same arrangement as that of isolator.
• No resistive cards are required, instead power is coupled out
to the required port.
• Ports 3 and 4 are oriented radially outward and are attached
to circular section.
• Ports 1, 2, 3 and 4 are oriented such that E field can couple to
these ports in numerical order after going through a rotation
of 45° in clockwise direction in each step.
43. Operation of 4-port Circulator
• For a signal TE10 incident at port 1, E field is in the direction of “m”.
• When the wave travels along a magnetized ferrite, the direction of E field gets
rotated by 45° and it coincides with the direction of “n”.
• So power incident at port 1 appears at port 2. It dose not coupled to port 3 and port
4, because E field is not significantly cut by these ports.
• Signal incident at port 2, gets rotated by 45° due to ferrite rode in clockwise
direction, and it coincides with the direction of “o”. So power incident at port2
comes out of port 3 only.
43
44. Applications of Circulator
44
• Duplexer for Radar Antenna
System
• Transmitter feeds the Antenna
while the received energy is
directed to the Rx.
• The high power transmitter can
be isolated from the sensitive
receiver.
• The same antenna can be used
for transmission & reception.
(Duplexer action)
46. 47
• These waveguide components are normally used to change the
direction of the guide through an arbitrary angle.
• E bend: the bend is in the direction of narrow wall dimension such
that lines of E field are affected.
• Bends have to be gradual to minimize the reflections.
• E-plane corner: At low frequencies, 90 bending are preferred.
• In order to minimize reflections from the discontinuities, it is
desirable to have the mean length “L”, between continuities equal to
an odd number of quarter-wave lengths, that is,
• If the mean length “L” is an odd number of quarter wavelengths, the
reflected waves from both ends of the waveguide section are
completely canceled.
• Waveguide twists are used to convert the vertical to horizontal
polarization and vice versa.