This document provides information about polymers including their classification, important types, and examples. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules formed by the linking of repeating structural units known as monomers.
Polymers can be classified in several ways such as by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mode of polymerization (addition, condensation), and intermolecular forces. Important addition polymers formed through chain growth include polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyacrylonitrile. Important condensation polymers formed through step-growth include nylon, polyesters like dacron, phenol-formaldehyde polymers like bakelite, and melamine
Polymer science is the study of polymers, which are large molecules composed of many repeating units called monomers. Some key points:
- The first synthetic polymer was celluloid in 1845, while Bakelite in 1872 was one of the earliest plastics. Many common polymers like polyethylene and PVC were invented in the 1930s.
- Polymers have a wide array of applications, from insulation coatings to automotive parts to pharmaceutical packaging and coatings. They are used to stabilize emulsions, thicken liquids, and control drug release.
- Polymers can be classified by their structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), origin (natural vs synthetic), and properties (therm
Polymer science concerns large molecules called polymers that include rubbers, plastics, and fibers. Polymers are made of repeating molecular units and have high molecular weights. There are over 60,000 scientists working with polymers today to develop new materials with customized properties. Common polymers include polypropylene, polyethylene, and nylons. Polymers can be categorized based on their molecular structure as thermoplastics, thermosets, or elastomers, which determine how they respond to heat.
This document discusses polymers and their applications in drug delivery. It begins with an introduction to polymers, including their classification and molecular structure. It then covers general mechanisms of drug release from polymers, including diffusion, degradation and swelling. Applications of polymers in conventional dosage forms and controlled drug delivery are presented. The document also discusses biodegradable polymers and natural polymers. It provides details on the classification, characteristics and selection of polymers for drug delivery.
Polymer in pharmaceutics by prof. TARiQUE khan sir. AACP Akkalkuwasufiyyy
This document discusses polymers and their applications in drug delivery. It begins with an introduction to polymers, including their classification and molecular structure. It then covers various polymer properties such as crystallinity, molecular weight, and shape. The document discusses mechanisms of drug release from polymers, including diffusion, degradation, and swelling. It provides examples of matrix and reservoir drug delivery systems, as well as environmentally responsive systems. The document concludes with discussing characteristics of ideal polymers for drug delivery and criteria for polymer selection.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on polymer science given to Dr. R. V. Kulkarni. The presentation covered various topics including polymer classification, applications of polymers in controlled drug delivery, biodegradable and natural polymers. Key points discussed include the different methods of polymer classification including by linking method, composition, polymerization method, mechanism and origin. Important polymerization methods like addition, condensation and step-growth were also summarized.
Polymer science is the study of polymers, which are large molecules composed of many repeating units called monomers. Some key points:
- The first synthetic polymer was celluloid in 1845, while Bakelite in 1872 was one of the earliest plastics. Many common polymers like polyethylene and PVC were invented in the 1930s.
- Polymers have a wide array of applications, from insulation coatings to automotive parts to pharmaceutical packaging and coatings. They are used to stabilize emulsions, thicken liquids, and control drug release.
- Polymers can be classified by their structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), origin (natural vs synthetic), and properties (therm
Polymer science concerns large molecules called polymers that include rubbers, plastics, and fibers. Polymers are made of repeating molecular units and have high molecular weights. There are over 60,000 scientists working with polymers today to develop new materials with customized properties. Common polymers include polypropylene, polyethylene, and nylons. Polymers can be categorized based on their molecular structure as thermoplastics, thermosets, or elastomers, which determine how they respond to heat.
This document discusses polymers and their applications in drug delivery. It begins with an introduction to polymers, including their classification and molecular structure. It then covers general mechanisms of drug release from polymers, including diffusion, degradation and swelling. Applications of polymers in conventional dosage forms and controlled drug delivery are presented. The document also discusses biodegradable polymers and natural polymers. It provides details on the classification, characteristics and selection of polymers for drug delivery.
Polymer in pharmaceutics by prof. TARiQUE khan sir. AACP Akkalkuwasufiyyy
This document discusses polymers and their applications in drug delivery. It begins with an introduction to polymers, including their classification and molecular structure. It then covers various polymer properties such as crystallinity, molecular weight, and shape. The document discusses mechanisms of drug release from polymers, including diffusion, degradation, and swelling. It provides examples of matrix and reservoir drug delivery systems, as well as environmentally responsive systems. The document concludes with discussing characteristics of ideal polymers for drug delivery and criteria for polymer selection.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on polymer science given to Dr. R. V. Kulkarni. The presentation covered various topics including polymer classification, applications of polymers in controlled drug delivery, biodegradable and natural polymers. Key points discussed include the different methods of polymer classification including by linking method, composition, polymerization method, mechanism and origin. Important polymerization methods like addition, condensation and step-growth were also summarized.
1. The document discusses polymer science and its applications in controlled drug delivery. It describes how polymers are composed of repeating monomer units that are linked together, and how they can be classified based on their source, structure, and properties.
2. The mechanisms of drug release from polymers include diffusion, degradation, and swelling. Drugs can diffuse through or be released as polymers degrade. Reservoir systems can provide more constant drug delivery rates as the polymer coating limits diffusion.
3. Applications of polymers for controlled drug delivery include oral, transdermal, and ocular delivery systems. Oral systems control drug release using osmotic pressure, diffusion through gel matrices, or bioadhesive polymers
Polymers have played an integral role in advancing drug delivery technology by providing remote control of drug release. Polymers can conjugate to therapeutics to improve their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties through increased plasma half-life, protection from enzymes, reduced immunogenicity, and potential for targeted delivery. Polymers are composed of repeating monomer units connected by covalent bonds and can be classified based on their monomer composition, method of polymerization, architecture, application, morphology, and degradability. Common polymers used in drug delivery systems include PEG, PLGA, chitosan, and HPMC.
This document discusses polymer science and its applications in pharmaceutical formulations. It begins with defining polymers as large molecules composed of repeating structural units. It then covers the ideal characteristics of polymers, various polymer classifications including simple, water interaction, linkage type, polymerization method and composition. Key polymerization processes and factors affecting polymer properties are described. The document concludes by outlining several polymer applications in controlled drug delivery systems for oral, transdermal, ocular and other drug delivery applications.
This document discusses polymers and their applications in controlled drug delivery systems. It defines polymers as macromolecules formed by linking small molecule monomers through polymerization. Polymers are classified based on their structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mechanism of formation (addition, condensation), origin (natural, synthetic), and degradability. Common polymers used in drug delivery include polyesters like PLA and PGA, polysaccharides like sodium alginate, and proteins like albumin and collagen. These polymers can be used to develop various drug delivery systems through diffusion, swelling, or erosion-based release.
This document discusses polymers, including their classification, types of polymerization, characteristics, and applications. Polymers can be classified based on their source as natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic. They can also be classified by their structure as linear, branched, or cross-linked. The two main types of polymerization are addition and condensation. Polymers have a variety of characteristics like low density and good corrosion resistance. They have wide applications in medicine, consumer products, industry, and sports.
Introduction to pharmaceuitcal polymer chemistryGanesh Mote
The document discusses various types of polymers including their structure, properties, and uses. It defines a polymer as a large molecule formed by the repeated linking of small molecules called monomers. Polymers can be classified based on their source, structure, molecular forces, and mode of polymerization. Common polymers discussed include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, teflon, and poly(methyl methacrylate). Their properties and applications in various industries are also summarized.
Polymer behaviour in solution & effect of molecular weight in polymerSyed Minhazur Rahman
Polymer chains of varying molecular weights exhibit different behaviors in solution. Higher molecular weight polymers swell more before dissolving and produce highly viscous solutions even at low concentrations. Their long, entangled chains confer properties like high strength, impact resistance, and chemical resistance. Lower molecular weight polymers dissolve immediately and yield low viscosity solutions. Their short chains act as plasticizers and impart softness, flexibility, and increased molecular mobility. A polymer's molecular weight determines the length of its chains and significantly impacts its solution behavior and material properties.
This document provides an overview of polymers including definitions, classifications, properties, and applications. It defines polymers as long chain molecules composed of repeating structural units called monomers. Polymers are classified based on their monomer composition (homopolymers or copolymers) and backbone structure (carbon-chain or heterochain). Key properties discussed are molecular weight, hydrophobicity, solubility, and hydrogels. Finally, applications of polymers are outlined in pharmaceutical products like tablets, liquids, semisolids, as well as tissue regeneration and controlled drug delivery using matrix and swelling controlled release systems.
Natural polymers are polymers that occur in nature and are produced by living organisms. They include polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and alginate from plants, and proteins like gelatin and albumin from animals. Natural polymers can be classified based on their source as plant, animal, or microbial polymers, or based on their structure as polysaccharides, polypeptides, polyesters, or polynucleotides. They have properties like biodegradability, biocompatibility, and lack of toxicity that make them attractive for various applications.
he reaction involving combination of two or more monomer units to form a long chain polymer is termed as polymerization. These are widely used as Pharmaceutical aids like suspending agents, Emulsifying agents, Adhesives, Coating agents, Adjuvants etc.
This document discusses polymers and their applications in drug delivery. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules composed of repeating monomer units. The document then covers different types of polymers based on their structure and properties, including thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. It also addresses various polymerization methods and classifications. The document discusses mechanisms of drug release from polymers, including diffusion, degradation, and swelling. It provides examples of controlled drug delivery applications using polymers, such as transdermal patches, implants, and biodegradable systems. In closing, it emphasizes the benefits of biodegradable polymers for localized, sustained drug delivery with reduced side effects.
This document provides an overview of pharmaceutical polymers. It begins by listing 8 objectives for understanding polymers and their applications. The introduction defines polymers as large molecules composed of repeating monomer units and notes their growing use in pharmaceuticals and biomedical applications. The history section outlines some important early polymers like celluloid and nylon and their uses. The document then covers general polymer concepts including monomer definition and molecular weight before discussing polymer synthesis methods of addition and condensation polymerization.
Polymers Used in Pharmaceutical SciencesOyshe Ahmed
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS
MECHANISM OF DRUG RELEASE FROM POLYMER
BIO DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS
SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS
POLYMERS USED IN FORMULATION OF DIFFERENT DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM.
APPLICATION OF POLYMERS
Polymer chemistry involves the study of polymers, which are large molecules composed of many repeating structural units connected by covalent bonds. The monomers that make up polymers are linked through polymerization reactions. Polymers can be classified based on their structure, source, number of monomers, arrangement of monomers, and configuration. Common types of polymers include linear, branched, and cross-linked polymers. Polymers are also classified as natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic based on their source. Polymerization reactions are either addition polymerization, involving chain growth, or condensation polymerization, involving step growth. Polymers have a variety of applications and properties depending on their structure and bonding forces.
This document provides an introduction to polymers including their classification, structure, common types, and mechanisms of polymerization. Polymers are macromolecules composed of repeating structural units connected through polymerization reactions. They can be classified based on their structure as linear, branched, or cross-linked. Common addition polymers include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon. Condensation polymers include polyethylene terephthalate and polyamides. Polymerization occurs primarily through either addition or condensation reactions. Free radical addition polymerization follows initiation, propagation, and termination steps.
The document discusses various topics related to polymers including their classification, types, mechanisms of polymerization, and methods of polymerization. Polymers can be classified based on their chain structure, chemical composition, source, and backbone. The main types are thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. Polymerization can occur via addition or condensation reactions and methods include bulk, solution, suspension, and emulsion polymerization.
The document discusses ring opening polymerization (ROP), which is a chain growth polymerization where cyclic monomers react to form polymer chains by opening their ring structures. There are three main types of ROP - radical, anionic, and cationic - depending on whether the reactive center is a radical, anion, or cation. Examples are given of monomers that can undergo each type of ROP, along with diagrams of the mechanisms. Common applications of ROP include nylon and biopolymers like polysaccharides.
Polymers are high molecular weight compounds formed by linking together smaller molecules called monomers. There are several ways to classify polymers, including by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), method of polymerization (addition, condensation), and degradability (biodegradable, non-biodegradable). Biodegradable polymers are important for controlled drug delivery systems as they can release drugs through diffusion, swelling, or erosion over time. Common biodegradable polymers used in drug delivery include lactic acid, glycolic acid, polyanhydrides, and polycaprolactone.
The presentation gives a brief idea about polymers,its definition,types of polymers,common examples of polymers,polymerization and its types,polymer processing and applications of polymers.
This document provides information about polymers including their classification, important types, and examples. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules formed by the linking of repeating structural units known as monomers.
Polymers can be classified in several ways such as by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mode of polymerization (addition, condensation), and intermolecular forces. Important addition polymers formed through chain growth include polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyacrylonitrile. Important condensation polymers formed through step growth include nylon, polyesters like dacron, phenol-formaldehyde polymers like bakelite, and melamine-
Katie Kurtz has three main goals: 1) To gain professional business experience through a job or internship by summer 2012. 2) To graduate with honors within 3 years by enrolling in summer courses and working closely with advisors. 3) To attend an internship at IHOP-KC within one year of graduation by saving money from jobs and developing her professional network.
1. The document discusses polymer science and its applications in controlled drug delivery. It describes how polymers are composed of repeating monomer units that are linked together, and how they can be classified based on their source, structure, and properties.
2. The mechanisms of drug release from polymers include diffusion, degradation, and swelling. Drugs can diffuse through or be released as polymers degrade. Reservoir systems can provide more constant drug delivery rates as the polymer coating limits diffusion.
3. Applications of polymers for controlled drug delivery include oral, transdermal, and ocular delivery systems. Oral systems control drug release using osmotic pressure, diffusion through gel matrices, or bioadhesive polymers
Polymers have played an integral role in advancing drug delivery technology by providing remote control of drug release. Polymers can conjugate to therapeutics to improve their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties through increased plasma half-life, protection from enzymes, reduced immunogenicity, and potential for targeted delivery. Polymers are composed of repeating monomer units connected by covalent bonds and can be classified based on their monomer composition, method of polymerization, architecture, application, morphology, and degradability. Common polymers used in drug delivery systems include PEG, PLGA, chitosan, and HPMC.
This document discusses polymer science and its applications in pharmaceutical formulations. It begins with defining polymers as large molecules composed of repeating structural units. It then covers the ideal characteristics of polymers, various polymer classifications including simple, water interaction, linkage type, polymerization method and composition. Key polymerization processes and factors affecting polymer properties are described. The document concludes by outlining several polymer applications in controlled drug delivery systems for oral, transdermal, ocular and other drug delivery applications.
This document discusses polymers and their applications in controlled drug delivery systems. It defines polymers as macromolecules formed by linking small molecule monomers through polymerization. Polymers are classified based on their structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mechanism of formation (addition, condensation), origin (natural, synthetic), and degradability. Common polymers used in drug delivery include polyesters like PLA and PGA, polysaccharides like sodium alginate, and proteins like albumin and collagen. These polymers can be used to develop various drug delivery systems through diffusion, swelling, or erosion-based release.
This document discusses polymers, including their classification, types of polymerization, characteristics, and applications. Polymers can be classified based on their source as natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic. They can also be classified by their structure as linear, branched, or cross-linked. The two main types of polymerization are addition and condensation. Polymers have a variety of characteristics like low density and good corrosion resistance. They have wide applications in medicine, consumer products, industry, and sports.
Introduction to pharmaceuitcal polymer chemistryGanesh Mote
The document discusses various types of polymers including their structure, properties, and uses. It defines a polymer as a large molecule formed by the repeated linking of small molecules called monomers. Polymers can be classified based on their source, structure, molecular forces, and mode of polymerization. Common polymers discussed include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, teflon, and poly(methyl methacrylate). Their properties and applications in various industries are also summarized.
Polymer behaviour in solution & effect of molecular weight in polymerSyed Minhazur Rahman
Polymer chains of varying molecular weights exhibit different behaviors in solution. Higher molecular weight polymers swell more before dissolving and produce highly viscous solutions even at low concentrations. Their long, entangled chains confer properties like high strength, impact resistance, and chemical resistance. Lower molecular weight polymers dissolve immediately and yield low viscosity solutions. Their short chains act as plasticizers and impart softness, flexibility, and increased molecular mobility. A polymer's molecular weight determines the length of its chains and significantly impacts its solution behavior and material properties.
This document provides an overview of polymers including definitions, classifications, properties, and applications. It defines polymers as long chain molecules composed of repeating structural units called monomers. Polymers are classified based on their monomer composition (homopolymers or copolymers) and backbone structure (carbon-chain or heterochain). Key properties discussed are molecular weight, hydrophobicity, solubility, and hydrogels. Finally, applications of polymers are outlined in pharmaceutical products like tablets, liquids, semisolids, as well as tissue regeneration and controlled drug delivery using matrix and swelling controlled release systems.
Natural polymers are polymers that occur in nature and are produced by living organisms. They include polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and alginate from plants, and proteins like gelatin and albumin from animals. Natural polymers can be classified based on their source as plant, animal, or microbial polymers, or based on their structure as polysaccharides, polypeptides, polyesters, or polynucleotides. They have properties like biodegradability, biocompatibility, and lack of toxicity that make them attractive for various applications.
he reaction involving combination of two or more monomer units to form a long chain polymer is termed as polymerization. These are widely used as Pharmaceutical aids like suspending agents, Emulsifying agents, Adhesives, Coating agents, Adjuvants etc.
This document discusses polymers and their applications in drug delivery. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules composed of repeating monomer units. The document then covers different types of polymers based on their structure and properties, including thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. It also addresses various polymerization methods and classifications. The document discusses mechanisms of drug release from polymers, including diffusion, degradation, and swelling. It provides examples of controlled drug delivery applications using polymers, such as transdermal patches, implants, and biodegradable systems. In closing, it emphasizes the benefits of biodegradable polymers for localized, sustained drug delivery with reduced side effects.
This document provides an overview of pharmaceutical polymers. It begins by listing 8 objectives for understanding polymers and their applications. The introduction defines polymers as large molecules composed of repeating monomer units and notes their growing use in pharmaceuticals and biomedical applications. The history section outlines some important early polymers like celluloid and nylon and their uses. The document then covers general polymer concepts including monomer definition and molecular weight before discussing polymer synthesis methods of addition and condensation polymerization.
Polymers Used in Pharmaceutical SciencesOyshe Ahmed
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS
MECHANISM OF DRUG RELEASE FROM POLYMER
BIO DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS
SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS
POLYMERS USED IN FORMULATION OF DIFFERENT DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM.
APPLICATION OF POLYMERS
Polymer chemistry involves the study of polymers, which are large molecules composed of many repeating structural units connected by covalent bonds. The monomers that make up polymers are linked through polymerization reactions. Polymers can be classified based on their structure, source, number of monomers, arrangement of monomers, and configuration. Common types of polymers include linear, branched, and cross-linked polymers. Polymers are also classified as natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic based on their source. Polymerization reactions are either addition polymerization, involving chain growth, or condensation polymerization, involving step growth. Polymers have a variety of applications and properties depending on their structure and bonding forces.
This document provides an introduction to polymers including their classification, structure, common types, and mechanisms of polymerization. Polymers are macromolecules composed of repeating structural units connected through polymerization reactions. They can be classified based on their structure as linear, branched, or cross-linked. Common addition polymers include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon. Condensation polymers include polyethylene terephthalate and polyamides. Polymerization occurs primarily through either addition or condensation reactions. Free radical addition polymerization follows initiation, propagation, and termination steps.
The document discusses various topics related to polymers including their classification, types, mechanisms of polymerization, and methods of polymerization. Polymers can be classified based on their chain structure, chemical composition, source, and backbone. The main types are thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. Polymerization can occur via addition or condensation reactions and methods include bulk, solution, suspension, and emulsion polymerization.
The document discusses ring opening polymerization (ROP), which is a chain growth polymerization where cyclic monomers react to form polymer chains by opening their ring structures. There are three main types of ROP - radical, anionic, and cationic - depending on whether the reactive center is a radical, anion, or cation. Examples are given of monomers that can undergo each type of ROP, along with diagrams of the mechanisms. Common applications of ROP include nylon and biopolymers like polysaccharides.
Polymers are high molecular weight compounds formed by linking together smaller molecules called monomers. There are several ways to classify polymers, including by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), method of polymerization (addition, condensation), and degradability (biodegradable, non-biodegradable). Biodegradable polymers are important for controlled drug delivery systems as they can release drugs through diffusion, swelling, or erosion over time. Common biodegradable polymers used in drug delivery include lactic acid, glycolic acid, polyanhydrides, and polycaprolactone.
The presentation gives a brief idea about polymers,its definition,types of polymers,common examples of polymers,polymerization and its types,polymer processing and applications of polymers.
This document provides information about polymers including their classification, important types, and examples. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules formed by the linking of repeating structural units known as monomers.
Polymers can be classified in several ways such as by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mode of polymerization (addition, condensation), and intermolecular forces. Important addition polymers formed through chain growth include polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyacrylonitrile. Important condensation polymers formed through step growth include nylon, polyesters like dacron, phenol-formaldehyde polymers like bakelite, and melamine-
Katie Kurtz has three main goals: 1) To gain professional business experience through a job or internship by summer 2012. 2) To graduate with honors within 3 years by enrolling in summer courses and working closely with advisors. 3) To attend an internship at IHOP-KC within one year of graduation by saving money from jobs and developing her professional network.
Japan has recently experienced its first trade deficit since 1980 for several reasons:
1) The earthquake damaged factories and supply chains, increasing import costs as Japan was forced to import more power without nuclear energy.
2) The strong yen has made Japanese exports less competitive abroad and fueled production shifts overseas.
3) Emerging markets have driven up costs of imports like gas, oil, and rare earths.
4) An aging workforce and low birth rate are depleting corporate savings accounts as pension costs rise.
As a result, Japan's trade surplus will erode over time, increasing public debt levels and requiring difficult economic decisions that could impact global markets in the next 5 years.
La empresa se especializa en soluciones de recursos humanos en México. Su oficina central está en la Ciudad de México y cubre las principales ciudades del país en sectores como industrial, agropecuario, comercial y de servicios. Ofrece servicios de outsourcing de nómina, seguros médicos y de vida, tarjeta de descuentos y caja de ahorro para sus clientes y empleados.
This document discusses the importance of chemistry in everyday life and how it relates to areas like medicines, food, and cleansing agents. It aims to explain how various types of drugs function in the body. Specifically, it will discuss how drugs can be classified based on their pharmacological effect, action, chemical structure, and molecular targets. It will also explain drug-target interaction, focusing on how drugs interact with enzymes and receptors in the body. Drugs usually work by inhibiting the catalytic activity of enzymes or preventing the binding of substrates to the active site of enzymes.
El documento habla brevemente sobre el boom de la informática y proporciona instrucciones para compartir la presentación con otros o suscribirse a recibir más presentaciones por correo electrónico. Alienta a los lectores a hacer clic en enlaces para enviar la presentación a un amigo o suscribirse a un boletín de correo electrónico con más presentaciones.
This document provides a table of contents for a textbook on chemistry. The textbook is divided into 9 units covering topics such as the solid state, solutions, electrochemistry, chemical kinetics, and coordination compounds. Each unit is further divided into sections that provide more specific coverage of topics within that unit. The document also includes foreword, preface, and appendices sections.
This document discusses solutions and their properties. It defines different types of solutions such as gas-gas, liquid-liquid, and solid-liquid solutions. It also describes various ways to express the concentration of a solution, including mass percentage, volume percentage, parts per million, and mole fraction. Finally, it provides an example calculation for determining the mole fraction of a solution.
1) The d-block elements occupy the central section of the periodic table between the s-block and p-block elements. They are called transition elements because their position is between these blocks.
2) The electronic configurations of transition elements generally follow the pattern (n-1)d1-10ns1-2, with the (n-1)d orbitals being progressively filled. However, there are some exceptions due to small energy differences between orbitals.
3) The d-block elements are divided into series based on the filling of the d-orbitals - 3d, 4d, 5d and the incomplete 6d series. Zn, Cd and Hg are not considered transition metals
1. The document discusses principles of metallurgy and isolation of elements from ores. It covers topics like occurrence of metals, concentration of ores, extraction of crude metal, and thermodynamic principles.
2. Concentration of ores involves processes like magnetic separation, froth floatation, and leaching to separate the desired metal compound from unwanted gangue materials.
3. Extraction of the crude metal generally involves two steps - conversion of the concentrated ore to an oxide through calcination or roasting, and then reducing the oxide to the pure metal using a reducing agent like carbon at high temperatures.
This 3.5 hour lesson plan introduces 3rd grade students to the concept of identity through exploring the fairytale Cinderella and the photography of William Wegman. Students will create an acrostic poem about Cinderella and their own name, then make a collage by cutting out words to fill their silhouette and matte it on colored paper with an oil pastel border. The teacher will evaluate students' understanding through discussion and by reviewing their poems and silhouette collages.
This document discusses amines, which are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. Amines can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced. They have important commercial uses as intermediates in making medicines and fibers. Diazonium salts are also discussed as intermediates used to synthesize aromatic compounds like dyes.
This document discusses aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids. It begins by stating the objectives of understanding the nomenclature, structures, properties, reactions and uses of these carbonyl compounds. It then defines aldehydes as containing a carbonyl group bonded to a carbon and hydrogen, ketones as bonded to two carbons, and carboxylic acids as bonded to an oxygen. The document provides examples of common and IUPAC names for some aldehydes and ketones. It notes that carbonyl compounds play important roles in biochemistry, adding flavors and fragrances to nature. They are also used in foods, pharmaceuticals, solvents, and materials like plastics and fabrics.
The document discusses the characteristics of solids. It describes how solids have fixed positions and rigid structures, unlike liquids and gases which can flow freely. Solids are classified as either crystalline or amorphous based on the ordering of particles. Crystalline solids have long-range orderly patterns that repeat, while amorphous solids only have short-range order and irregular particle shapes. Properties like melting point and ability to flow differ between the two types of solids based on their particle arrangements.
This document provides information about coordination compounds and Werner's theory of coordination compounds. It begins with an overview of coordination compounds and their importance. It then discusses Werner's theory, including his postulates about primary and secondary valences of metal ions and the coordination number being equal to the number of ligands bound to the metal ion. The document defines key terms related to coordination compounds such as coordination entity, central atom/ion, ligands, coordination number, and isomers. It also discusses nomenclature rules for writing formulas and names of mononuclear coordination compounds. The summary is as follows:
1) The document discusses Werner's pioneering theory of coordination compounds and key postulates about metal ion valences and coordination geometry
This document discusses the importance of chemistry in everyday life and how it relates to areas like medicines, food, and cleansing agents. It aims to explain how various types of drugs function in the body. Specifically, it will discuss how drugs can be classified based on their pharmacological effect, action, chemical structure, and molecular targets. It will also explain drug-target interaction, focusing on how drugs interact with enzymes and receptors in the body. Drugs usually work by inhibiting the catalytic activity of enzymes or preventing the binding of substrates to the active site of enzymes.
Polymers are giant molecules composed of repeating structural units joined together. They can be classified based on their origin (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), thermal response (thermoplastic, thermosetting), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), and application (rubber, plastic, fibers). Polymerization is the process of linking monomers together to form polymers. It occurs via two main mechanisms: step-growth polymerization (condensation polymerization) and chain-growth polymerization (addition polymerization). Step-growth involves the elimination of a small molecule as monomers react together in a step-wise manner, while chain-growth is a chain reaction with no byproducts as monomers continuously add to the
This document summarizes various ways of classifying polymers. Polymers can be classified based on their structure as linear, branched, or cross-linked. They can also be classified based on their source as natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic. Additionally, polymers are classified based on the number and arrangement of monomers, their configuration, the intermolecular forces between chains, and the type of polymerization reaction (addition or condensation). The document provides examples for most polymer classifications.
This document summarizes different types of polymers. It discusses the classification of polymers based on source, structure, mode of polymerization, molecular forces, and provides examples. Key polymers discussed include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, bakelite, phenol-formaldehyde, and melamine-formaldehyde. The document also explains the processes of addition, condensation, and step-growth polymerization.
1. Polymers are large molecules formed by linking together many smaller molecules called monomers. Examples include polyethene formed from linking ethene molecules.
2. Polymers have both crystalline regions that provide strength and amorphous regions that provide flexibility. Their properties depend on their size, shape, and intermolecular forces.
3. Polymers can be classified based on the number of monomers (homo- vs copolymers), the arrangement of monomers (tacticity), functionality (linear, branched, or network), and origin (natural, synthetic, or inorganic).
Polymers play a very important role in human life. Our body is made of lot of polymers, e.g. Proteins, enzymes, etc. Other naturally occurring polymers like wood, rubber, leather and silk are have wide application. Now a day synthetic polymer like useful plastics, rubbers and fiber materials are synthesized. presentation includes introduction classification and preparation methods. Polymers play a very important role in human life. Our body is made of lot of polymers, e.g. Proteins, enzymes, etc. Other naturally occurring polymers like wood, rubber, leather and silk are have wide application. Now a day synthetic polymer like useful plastics, rubbers and fiber materials are synthesized. Leo Baekeland patented the first totally synthetic polymer called Bakelite (1910). Bakelite is a versatile, durable material prepared from low-cost materials phenol and formaldehyde and was the most important synthetic polymer material. In the 1920s Hermann Staudinger showed that polymers were high-molecular-weight compounds held together by normal covalent bonds.
The suffix in polymer ‘mer’ is originated from Greek word meros – which means part. The word polymer is thus coined to mean material consisting of many parts or mers. A macromolecule having high molecular mass (103-107u) and generally not a well-defined structure or molecular weight. The macromolecules formed by joining of repeating structural units on a large scale. The repeating structural units are simple and reactive molecules linked to each other by covalent bonds. This process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerization. Most of the polymers are basically organic compounds, however they can be inorganic (e.g. silicones based on Si-O network).
Polymers are giant molecules formed from many repeating units or monomers. They can be either homopolymers made of one monomer type, or copolymers made of two or more different monomers. Polymers are classified based on their structure, molecular forces, and mechanism of polymerization. Thermoplastics can be remelted and remolded, while thermosets harden irreversibly. Important polymers include polyethylene, polyester, nylon, PVC, and Teflon. They find wide use in products like bottles, fibers, pipes, coatings and more.
Polymers are large molecules formed by combining many smaller subunits called monomers. They can be found naturally or made synthetically. Polymers are formed through polymerization reactions where monomers bond together into long chains or networks. There are several ways polymers can be classified, including by their source, structure, type of polymerization reaction, monomers used, intermolecular forces, backbone composition, and atomic arrangement. The functionality and degree of polymerization also provide information about polymers' structure and properties.
Polymers are large molecules composed of many repeating structural units called monomers. There are two main types of polymerization: addition polymerization and condensation polymerization. Polymers can be classified in several ways, including by source (natural vs synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), and molecular forces (elastomers, thermoplastics, thermosets, fibers). Common polymers used in pharmaceutical applications include cellulose, collagen, starches, polycaprolactone, and polymers used in controlled drug release formulations. Polymers can be synthesized via different polymerization methods like bulk, solution, suspension, emulsion, and their reverse phase counterparts.
Macromolecules are large molecules formed by linking many smaller units, or monomers, through covalent bonds. Natural substances like proteins and synthetic polymers are examples of macromolecules. Monomers undergo polymerization to form macromolecules by linking together through addition or condensation reactions. Polymers can be classified in different ways such as natural vs synthetic, organic vs inorganic, thermoplastic vs thermosetting, and linear, branched or cross-linked based on their molecular structure. The process of polymerization and properties of polymers depend on factors like the type of monomers, reaction conditions and molecular architecture.
This document provides an overview of polymers, including:
- Polymers are large molecules made by linking repeating units called monomers. Naturally occurring polymers have been used for thousands of years, while artificial polymers were developed more recently after WWII.
- Polymers can be classified based on their source, thermal behavior, chemical structure, stereochemistry, and end use. Important types include thermoplastics, thermosets, homopolymers, copolymers, fibers, and plastics.
- Polymer properties depend on factors like strength, crystallinity, elasticity, and glass transition temperature which are influenced by the polymer structure. Common characterization techniques and molding processes like injection molding are also discussed.
Polymer can be classified in several ways:
1. By origin - natural polymers are isolated from nature, semi-synthetic are modified natural polymers, and synthetic are made entirely in a lab.
2. By structure - linear polymers have straight chains while cross-linked polymers have a 3D network structure.
3. By application - fibers have strength from hydrogen bonding and are crystalline, plastics are shaped by heat/pressure, and elastomers are rubbery and amorphous.
Polymers are long-chain molecules composed of repeating structural units called monomers. They can be classified in several ways: by source (natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), polymerization type (addition, condensation), molecular forces (elastomers, thermoplastics, thermosets, fibers), and as biopolymers from living organisms. Polymers have a variety of uses depending on their properties and classifications.
Polymer chemistry involves the study of polymers, which are large molecules composed of many repeating structural units connected by covalent bonds. The monomers that make up polymers are linked through polymerization reactions. Polymers can be classified based on their structure, source, number of monomers, arrangement of monomers, and configuration. Common types of polymers include linear, branched, and cross-linked polymers. Polymers are also classified as natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic based on their source. Polymerization reactions are either addition polymerization, involving chain growth, or condensation polymerization, involving step growth. Important conducting polymers include intrinsically conducting polymers and extrinsically conducting polymers. Biopolymers include nucleic acids, proteins,
Polymers are formed through the process of polymerization, where simple repeating molecular units called monomers combine in long chains. Polymers can be classified in several ways, including by the type of monomer (homopolymers vs copolymers), their source (natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic), their structure (linear, branched, or cross-linked), and the type of polymerization reaction that creates them (addition or condensation). Examples are provided for common polymers that fall into each category. Polymers also have different properties depending on the strength of molecular forces between chains, and can be categorized as elastomers, fibers, thermoplastics, or thermosetting polymers based on these forces
Pharmaceutical polymers,polymers in pharmacutics/introduction to polymers/ co...Ashwani Kumar Singh
Polymers have many applications in pharmaceutical preparations, both in manufacturing containers and in drug formulations. Polymers can be classified based on their source, type of polymerization, degradability, water interaction, structure, monomer type, and molecular forces. Drug release from polymers can occur via diffusion through or out of the polymer matrix, polymer degradation, or water penetration and swelling of the polymer. Common uses of polymers in pharmaceutical sciences include formulating matrix tablets, nanoparticles, solid dispersions, targeted drug delivery systems, polypeptide vesicles, cross-linked polymers, and micelles.
This document presents a summary of a student group's presentation on polymer classification. It discusses several ways polymers can be classified, including by source (natural, semisynthetic, synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), polymerization process (addition, condensation), molecular forces (elastomers, fibers, thermoplastics, thermosets), and monomer type (homopolymers, heteropolymers). The presentation was submitted to the lecturer of the Department of Natural Sciences at Daffodil International University by six students for their Polymer Science course.
This document discusses polymers, including their classification, types, properties, and applications. Polymers are high molecular mass substances composed of repeating structural units joined by covalent bonds. They can be classified as homopolymers or copolymers depending on the number of monomer units. Polymers are also classified by their polymerization reaction as addition or condensation polymers. Examples of common polymers are discussed. The properties of polymers depend on factors like chain length and branching, which influence strength. Polymers have a wide range of applications, from packaging and clothing to industrial uses like pipes and tanks to sports equipment and medical uses like surgical materials.
This document contains a table of contents for a chemistry textbook. It lists 15 units that cover topics such as haloalkanes and haloarenes, alcohols and ethers, aldehydes and ketones, biomolecules, polymers, and chemistry in everyday life. Each unit provides classifications, nomenclature, properties, reactions and other information about the substances covered in that section. The document also references answers to exercises and an index at the end.
The document discusses biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining carbohydrates and classifying them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their structure. Glucose and fructose are discussed as examples of monosaccharides that exist in open-chain and cyclic forms. Disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose are formed from glycosidic linkages between two monosaccharides. Sucrose yields glucose and fructose while maltose yields two glucose molecules.
This document discusses the classification, nomenclature, and preparation of alcohols, phenols, and ethers. It begins by classifying these compounds as mono-, di-, tri-, or polyhydric depending on the number of hydroxyl groups present. It then discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming these compounds systematically. Finally, it describes several methods for preparing alcohols and phenols, including hydration of alkenes, hydroboration-oxidation of alkenes, and substitution reactions of aromatic compounds.
The document discusses the classification, nomenclature, preparation methods, and properties of organohalogen compounds known as haloalkanes and haloarenes. Haloalkanes contain halogen atoms bonded to sp3 or sp2 hybridized carbon atoms, while haloarenes contain halogen atoms bonded to sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of an aryl group. Common preparation methods include the reaction of alcohols, hydrocarbons, alkenes, and aromatic amines with halogen acids, halogens, or diazonium salts.
This document contains answers to questions from exercises in Units 11-15 of a chemistry textbook. In Unit 11, the answers include IUPAC names of organic compounds and equations for reactions. Unit 12 focuses on carbonyl compounds, including IUPAC names, reactions, and properties. Unit 13 discusses amines, including their IUPAC names and relative basicities. Unit 15 defines key terms related to polymers such as monomer and polymerization and provides examples of natural and synthetic polymers.
The document discusses trends in the properties of group 15 elements of the periodic table, which include nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. It notes that ionization energy decreases and atomic/ionic radii increase down the group as atomic size increases. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal. The electronic configuration is ns2np3 and oxidation states vary between -3 to +5, with the most common being -3, +3, and +5.
This document discusses surface chemistry and adsorption. It begins by defining surface chemistry as phenomena that occur at interfaces between different phases, such as solid-gas interfaces. It then defines adsorption as the accumulation of molecules at surfaces rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid. Adsorption occurs due to unbalanced attractive forces at surfaces. There are two main types of adsorption: physical adsorption due to weak van der Waals forces, and chemical adsorption where chemical bonds form between adsorbate and adsorbent molecules. The mechanism and factors affecting adsorption are also explained.
1. The document discusses chemical kinetics, which is the study of reaction rates and their mechanisms. It defines the average and instantaneous rates of reactions in terms of changes in reactant or product concentrations over time.
2. Reaction rates depend on factors like concentration, temperature, and catalysts. The rate law expresses how the rate of a reaction varies with changes in concentration. Generally, reaction rates increase with higher reactant concentrations and decrease over time as concentrations decrease.
3. For reactions where stoichiometric coefficients are not equal to one, the rates of appearance/disappearance must be divided by the appropriate coefficients to make the rates equal. This allows rates to be expressed consistently in terms of changes in concentrations of
This document provides answers to questions from exercises in units 1-9 of a chemistry textbook. It includes:
1) Values for various chemistry calculations including molecular weights, concentrations, and thermodynamic quantities.
2) Descriptions of experimental procedures and results such as products formed from various reactions.
3) Explanations for concepts in inorganic chemistry including oxidation states of transition metals, acid-base theories, and principles of metallurgy.
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Unit 15
1. Unit
Objectives
15
Polymers
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
“Copolymerisation has been used by nature in polypeptides which
• explain the ter ms - monomer,
may contain as many as 20 different amino acids. Chemists are still
polymer and polymerisation and far behind”.
appreciate their importance;
• distinguish between various
Do you think that daily life would have been easier and
classes of polymers and different
colourful without the discovery and varied applications
types of polymerisation processes;
of polymers? The use of polymers in the manufacture
• appreciate the formation of
polymers from mono- and bi-
of plastic buckets, cups and saucers, children’s toys,
functional monomer molecules; packaging bags, synthetic clothing materials, automobile
• describe the preparation of some tyres, gears and seals, electrical insulating materials and
important synthetic polymers and machine parts has completely revolutionised the daily
their properties; life as well as the industrial scenario. Indeed, the
• appreciate the importance of polymers are the backbone of four major industries viz.
polymers in daily life. plastics, elastomers, fibres and paints and varnishes.
The word ‘polymer’ is coined from two Greek words:
poly means many and mer means unit or part. The
term polymer is defined as very large molecules having
high molecular mass (103-107u). These are also referred
to as macromolecules, which are formed by joining of
repeating structural units on a large scale. The repeating
structural units are derived from some simple and
reactive molecules known as monomers and are linked
to each other by covalent bonds. This process of
formation of polymers from respective monomers is
called polymerisation. The transformation of ethene to
polythene and interaction of hexamethylene diamine and
adipic acid leading to the formation of Nylon 6, 6 are
examples of two different types of polymerisation
reactions.
2. 15.1 Classification There are several ways of classification of polymers based on some
special considerations. The following are some of the common
of Polymers classifications of polymers:
15.1.1 Classifica- Under this type of classification, there are three sub categories.
tion Based
1. Natural polymers
on Source
These polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are
proteins, cellulose, starch, resins and rubber.
2. Semi-synthetic polymers
Cellulose derivatives as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate,
etc. are the usual examples of this sub category.
3. Synthetic polymers
A variety of synthetic polymers as plastic (polythene), synthetic fibres
(nylon 6,6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna - S) are examples of man-
made polymers extensively used in daily life as well as in industry.
15.1.2 Classifica- There are three different types based on the structure of the polymers.
tion Based 1. Linear polymers
on Structure
These polymers consist of long and straight chains. The examples
of Polymers
are high density polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc. These are
represented as:
2. Branched chain polymers
These polymers contain linear chains having some branches, e.g.,
low density polythene. These are depicted as follows:
3. Cross linked or Network polymers
These are usually formed from bi-functional and tri-functional
monomers and contain strong covalent bonds between various
linear polymer chains, e.g. bakelite, melamine, etc. These polymers
are depicted as follows:
Chemistry 426
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
3. 15.1.3 Classifica- Polymers can also be classified on the basis of mode of polymerisation
tion Based into two sub groups.
on Mode of 1. Addition polymers
Polymerisa-
The addition polymers are formed by the repeated addition of
tion
monomer molecules possessing double or triple bonds, e.g., the
formation of polythene from ethene and polypropene from propene.
However, the addition polymers formed by the polymerisation of a
single monomeric species are known as homopolymers, e.g.,
polythene.
The polymers made by addition polymerisation from two different
monomers are termed as copolymers, e.g., Buna-S, Buna-N, etc.
2. Condensation polymers
The condensation polymers are formed by repeated condensation
reaction between two different bi-functional or tri-functional
monomeric units. In these polymerisation reactions, the elimination
of small molecules such as water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride, etc.
take place. The examples are terylene (dacron), nylon 6, 6, nylon 6,
etc. For example, nylon 6, 6 is formed by the condensation of
hexamethylene diamine with adipic acid.
Is a homopolymer or a copolymer? Example 15.1
It is a homopolymer and the monomer from which it is obtained Solution
is styrene C6H5CH = CH2.
15.1.4 Classification A large number of polymer applications in different fields depend on
Based on their unique mechanical properties like tensile strength, elasticity,
Molecular toughness, etc. These mechanical properties are governed by
Forces intermolecular forces, e.g., van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds,
present in the polymer. These forces also bind the polymer chains.
Under this category, the polymers are classified into the following four
sub groups on the basis of magnitude of intermolecular forces present
in them.
1. Elastomers
These are rubber – like solids with elastic properties. In these
427 Polymers
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
4. elastomeric polymers, the polymer chains are held together by the
weakest intermolecular forces. These weak binding forces permit the
polymer to be stretched. A few ‘crosslinks’ are introduced in between
the chains, which help the polymer to retract to its original position
after the force is released as in vulcanised rubber. The examples
are buna-S, buna-N, neoprene, etc.
2. Fibres
Fibres are the thread forming solids which possess high tensile
strength and high modulus. These characteristics can be
attributed to the strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen
bonding. These strong forces also lead to close packing of chains
and thus impart crystalline nature. The examples are polyamides
(nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene), etc.
3. Thermoplastic polymers
These are the linear or slightly branched long chain molecules
capable of repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling.
These polymers possess intermolecular forces of attraction
intermediate between elastomers and fibres. Some common
thermoplastics are polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyls, etc.
4 Thermosetting polymers
These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules,
which on heating undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and
again become infusible. These cannot be reused. Some common
examples are bakelite, urea-formaldelyde resins, etc.
15.1.5 Classifica- The addition and condensation polymers are nowadays also referred as
tion Based chain growth polymers and step growth polymers depending on the
on Growth type of polymerisation mechanism they undergo during their formation.
Polymerisa-
tion
Intext Questions
15.1 What are polymers ?
15.2 How are polymers classified on the basis of structure?
15.2 Types of There are two broad types of polymerisation reactions, i.e., the addition
Polymerisation or chain growth polymerisation and condensation or step growth
polymerisation.
Reactions
15.2.1 Addition In this type of polymerisation, the molecules of the same monomer or
Polymerisa- diferent monomers add together on a large scale to form a polymer. The
tion or monomers used are unsaturated compounds, e.g., alkenes, alkadienes
Chain Growth and their derivatives. This mode of polymerisation leading to an increase
Polymerisa- in chain length or chain growth can take place through the formation
tion of either free radicals or ionic species. However, the free radical governed
addition or chain growth polymerisation is the most common mode.
Chemistry 428
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
5. 1. Free radical mechanism
A variety of alkenes or dienes and their derivatives are polymerised
in the presence of a free radical generating initiator (catalyst) like
benzoyl peroxide, acetyl peroxide, tert-butyl peroxide, etc. For
example, the polymerisation of ethene to polythene consists of
heating or exposing to light a mixture of ethene with a small amount
of benzoyl peroxide initiator. The process starts with the addition
of phenyl free radical formed by the peroxide to the ethene double
bond thus generating a new and larger free radical. This step is
called chain initiating step. As this radical reacts with another
molecule of ethene, another bigger sized radical is formed. The
repetition of this sequence with new and bigger radicals carries the
reaction forward and the step is termed as chain propagating step.
Ultimately, at some stage the product radical thus formed reacts
with another radical to form the polymerised product. This step is
called the chain terminating step. The sequence of steps may be
depicted as follows:
Chain initiation steps
Chain propagating step
Chain terminating step
For termination of the long chain, these free radicals can combine
in different ways to form polythene. One mode of termination of
chain is shown as under:
2 Preparation of some important addition polymers
(a) Polythene
There are two types of polythene as given below:
(i) Low density polythene: It is obtained by the polymerisation
of ethene under high pressure of 1000 to 2000 atmospheres
at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of traces
of dioxygen or a peroxide initiator (catalyst). The low density
429 Polymers
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
6. polythene (LDP) obtained through the free radical addition
and H-atom abstraction has highly branched structure.
Low density polythene is chemically inert and tough but flexible
and a poor conductor of electricity. Hence, it is used in the
insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufacture of
squeeze bottles, toys and flexible pipes.
(ii) High density polythene: It is formed when addition
polymerisation of ethene takes place in a hydrocarbon solvent
G. Natta of Imperia and
Karl Ziegler of Germany in the presence of a catalyst such as triethylaluminium and
were awarded the Nobel titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-Natta catalyst) at a temperature
Prize for Chemistry in of 333 K to 343 K and under a pressure of 6-7 atmospheres.
1963 for the development High density polythene (HDP) thus produced, consists of linear
of Ziegler-Natta catalyst. molecules and has a high density due to close packing. It is
also chemically inert and more tougher and harder. It is used
for manufacturing buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes, etc.
(b) Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)
Teflon is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a free
Teflon coatings undergo radical or persulphate catalyst at high pressures. It is chemically
decomposition at inert and resistant to attack by corrosive reagents. It is used in
temperatures above making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non – stick surface
300°C. coated utensils.
(c) Polyacrylonitrile
The addition polymerisation of acrylonitrile in presence of a
Acrylic fibres have good
resistance to stains, peroxide catalyst leads to the formation of polyacrylonitrile.
chemicals, insects and
fungi.
Polyacrylonitrile is used as a substitute for wool in making
commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan.
15.2.2 Condensa- This type of polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation
tion Poly- reaction between two bi-functional monomers. These polycondensation
merisation reactions may result in the loss of some simple molecules as water,
or Step alcohol, etc., and lead to the formation of high molecular mass
Growth poly- condensation polymers.
merisation In these reactions, the product of each step is again a bi-functional
species and the sequence of condensation goes on. Since, each step
produces a distinct functionalised species and is independent of each
other, this process is also called as step growth polymerisation.
The formation of terylene or dacron by the interaction of ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid is an example of this type of polymerisation.
Chemistry 430
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
7. Some important condensation polymerisation reactions
characterised by their linking units are described below:
1. Polyamides
These polymers possessing amide linkages are important examples
of synthetic fibres and are termed as nylons. The general method of
preparation consists of the condensation polymerisation of diamines
with dicarboxylic acids and also of amino acids and their lactams.
(a) Preparation of nylons
(i) Nylon 6,6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation
of hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure
and at high temperature.
Nylon 6, 6 is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and
in textile industry.
(ii) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at
a high temperature.
Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and
ropes.
2. Polyesters
These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids
and diols. Dacron or terylene is the best known example of polyesters.
It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-
antimony trioxide catalyst as per the reaction given earlier. Dacron
fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending with
cotton and wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in
safety helmets, etc.
431 Polymers
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
8. 3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)
Phenol - formaldehyde polymers are the oldest synthetic polymers.
These are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with
formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst.
The reaction starts with the initial formation of o-and/or
p-hydroxymethylphenol derivatives, which further react with phenol
to form compounds having rings joined to each other through
–CH2 groups. The initial product could be a linear product – Novolac
used in paints.
Novolac on heating with formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to
form an infusible solid mass called bakelite. It is used for making
combs, phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of
various utensils.
4. Melamine – formaldehyde polymer
Melamine formaldehyde polymer is formed by the condensation
polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde.
Chemistry 432
C:Chemistry-12Unit-15.pmd 28.02.07
9. It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery.
Intext Questions
15.3 Write the names of monomers of the following polymers:
15.4 Classify the following as addition and condensation polymers: Terylene, Bakelite,
Polyvinyl chloride, Polythene.
15.2.3 Copolyme- Copolymerisation is a polymerisation reaction in which a mixture
risation of more than one monomeric species is allowed to polymerise and form
a copolymer. The copolymer can be made not only by chain growth
polymerisation but by step growth polymerisation also. It contains
multiple units of each monomer used in the same polymeric chain.
For example, a mixture of 1, 3 – butadiene and styrene can form a
copolymer.
Copolymers have properties quite different from homopolymers. For
example, butadiene - styrene copolymer is quite tough and is a good
substitute for natural rubber. It is used for the manufacture of autotyres,
floortiles, footwear components, cable insulation, etc.
15.2.4 Rubber 1. Natural rubber
Rubber is a natural polymer and possesses elastic properties. It
is also termed as elastomer and has a variety of uses. It is
manufactured from rubber latex which is a colloidal dispersion of
rubber in water. This latex is obtained from the bark of rubber tree
and is found in India, Srilanka, Indonesia, Malaysia and South
America.
Natural rubber may be considered as a linear polymer of
isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) and is also called as cis - 1, 4 -
polyisoprene.
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10. The cis-polyisoprene molecule consists of various chains held together
by weak van der Waals interactions and has a coiled structure. Thus,
it can be stretched like a spring and exhibits elastic properties.
Vulcanisation of rubber: Natural rubber becomes soft at high
temperature (>335 K) and brittle at low temperatures (<283 K) and
shows high water absorption capacity. It is soluble in non-polar solvents
and is non-resistant to attack by oxidising agents. To improve upon
these physical properties, a process of vulcanisation is carried out. This
process consists of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and
an appropriate additive at a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K.
On vulcanisation, sulphur forms cross links at the reactive sites of
double bonds and thus the rubber gets stiffened.
In the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulphur is used as a
crosslinking agent. The probable structures of vulcanised rubber
molecules are depicted below:
2. Synthetic rubbers
Synthetic rubber is any vulcanisable rubber like polymer, which is
capable of getting stretched to twice its length. However, it returns
to its original shape and size as soon as the external stretching force
is released. Thus, synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of
1, 3 - butadiene derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its
derivatives with another unsaturated monomer.
Preparation of Synthetic Rubbers
1. Neoprene
Neoprene or polychloroprene is formed by the free radical
polymerisation of chloroprene.
It has superior resistance to vegetable and mineral oils. It is used
for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and hoses.
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11. 2. Buna – N
You have already studied about Buna-S, in Section 15.1.3. Buna –N
is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1, 3 – butadiene and
acrylonitrile in the presence of a peroxide catalyst.
It is resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic
solvents. It is used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc.
Intext Questions
15.5 Explain the difference between Buna-N and Buna-S.
15.6 Arrange the following polymers in increasing order of their intermolecular forces.
(i) Nylon 6,6, Buna-S, Polythene.
(ii) Nylon 6, Neoprene, Polyvinyl chloride.
15.3 Molecular Polymer properties are closely related to their molecular mass, size and
Mass of structure. The growth of the polymer chain during their synthesis is
dependent upon the availability of the monomers in the reaction mixture.
Polymers Thus, the polymer sample contains chains of varying lengths and hence
its molecular mass is always expressed as an average. The molecular
mass of polymers can be determined by chemical and physical methods.
15.4 Biodegradable A large number of polymers are quite resistant to the environmental
Polymers degradation processes and are thus responsible for the accumulation
of polymeric solid waste materials. These solid wastes cause acute
environmental problems and remain undegraded for quite a long time.
In view of the general awareness and concern for the problems created
by the polymeric solid wastes, certain new biodegradable synthetic
polymers have been designed and developed. These polymers contain
functional groups similar to the functional groups present in
biopolymers.
Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of biodegradable
polymers. Some important examples are given below:
1. Poly β -hydroxybutyrate – co-β-hydroxy valerate (PHBV)
It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid
and 3 - hydroxypentanoic acid. PHBV is used in speciality packaging,
orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of drugs. PHBV
undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.
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12. 2. Nylon 2–nylon 6
It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine (H2N–CH2–COOH)
and amino caproic acid [H2N (CH2)5 COOH] and is biodegradable.
Can you write the structure of this copolymer?
15.5 Polymers of Besides, the polymers already discussed, some other commercially
important polymers along with their structures and uses are given
Commercial below in Table 15.1.
Importance
Table 15.1: Some Other Commercially Important Polymers
Name of Polymer Monomer Structure Uses
Polypropene Propene Manufacture of
ropes, toys, pipes,
fibres, etc.
Polystyrene Styrene As insulator, wrapping
material, manufacture
of toys, radio and
television cabinets.
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride Manufacture of rain
(PVC) coats, hand bags, vinyl
flooring, water pipes.
Urea-formaldehyle (a) Urea For making unbreak-
Resin (b) Formaldehyde able cups and
laminated sheets.
Glyptal (a) Ethylene glycol Manufacture of
(b) Phthalic acid paints and lacquers.
Bakelite (a) Phenol For making combs,
(b) Formaldehyde electrical switches,
handles of utensils and
computer discs.
Summary
Polymers are defined as high molecular mass macromolecules, which consist of
repeating structural units derived from the corresponding monomers. These polymers
may be of natural or synthetic origin and are classified in a number of ways.
In the presence of an organic peroxide initiator, the alkenes and their derivatives
undergo addition polymerisation or chain growth polymerisation through a free
radical mechanism. Polythene, teflon, orlon, etc. are formed by addition polymerisation
of an appropriate alkene or its derivative. Condensation polymerisation reactions are
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13. shown by the interaction of bi – or poly functional monomers containing – NH2, – OH
and – COOH groups. This type of polymerisation proceeds through the elimination of
certain simple molecules as H2O, CH3OH, etc. Formaldehyde reacts with phenol and
melamine to form the corresponding condensation polymer products. The condensation
polymerisation progresses through step by step and is also called as step growth
polymerisation. Nylon, bakelite and dacron are some of the important examples of
condensation polymers. However, a mixture of two unsaturated monomers exhibits
copolymerisation and forms a co-polymer containing multiple units of each monomer.
Natural rubber is a cis 1, 4-polyisoprene and can be made more tough by the process
of vulcanisation with sulphur. Synthetic rubbers are usually obtained by copolymerisation
of alkene and 1, 3 butadiene derivatives.
In view of the potential environmental hazards of synthetic polymeric wastes, certain
biodegradable polymers such as PHBV and Nylon-2- Nylon-6 are developed as
alternatives.
Exercises
15.1 Explain the terms polymer and monomer.
15.2 What are natural and synthetic polymers? Give two examples of each type.
15.3 Distinguish between the terms homopolymer and copolymer and give an
example of each.
15.4 How do you explain the functionality of a monomer?
15.5 Define the term polymerisation.
15.6 Is ( NH-CHR-CO )n, a homopolymer or copolymer?
15.7 In which classes, the polymers are classified on the basis of molecular forces?
15.8 How can you differentiate between addition and condensation polymerisation?
15.9 Explain the term copolymerisation and give two examples.
15.10 Write the free radical mechanism for the polymerisation of ethene.
15.11 Define thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers with two examples of each.
15.12 Write the monomers used for getting the following polymers.
(i) Polyvinyl chloride (ii) Teflon (iii) Bakelite
15.13 Write the name and structure of one of the common initiators used in free
radical addition polymerisation.
15.14 How does the presence of double bonds in rubber molecules influence their
structure and reactivity?
15.15 Discuss the main purpose of vulcanisation of rubber.
15.16 What are the monomeric repeating units of Nylon-6 and Nylon-6,6?
15.17 Write the names and structures of the monomers of the following polymers:
(i) Buna-S (ii) Buna-N (iii) Dacron (iv) Neoprene
15.18 Identify the monomer in the following polymeric structures.
(i)
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14. (ii)
15.19 How is dacron obtained from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid ?
15.20 What is a biodegradable polymer ? Give an example of a biodegradable aliphatic
polyester.
Answers of Some Intext Questions
15.1 Polymers are high molecular mass substances consisting of large numbers
of repeating structural units. They are also called as macromolecules. Some
examples of polymers are polythene, bakelite, rubber, nylon 6, 6, etc.
15.2 On the basis of structure, the polymers are classified as below:
(i) Linear polymers such as polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.
(ii) Branched chain polymers such as low density polythene.
(iii) Cross linked polymers such as bakelite, melamine, etc.
15.3 (i) Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.
(ii) Caprolactam.
(iii) Tetrafluoroethene.
15.4 Addition polymers: Polyvinyl chloride, Polythene.
Condensation polymers: Terylene, Bakelite.
15.5 Buna-N is a copolymer of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile and Buna-S is
a copolymer of 1,3-butadiene and styrene.
15.6 In order of increasing intermolecular forces.
(i) Buna-S, Polythene, Nylon 6,6.
(ii) Neoprene, Polyvinyl chloride, Nylon 6.
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