Crystal Twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner.The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a variety of specific configurations.
http://www.spiderresources.com - In this presentation by Spider Resources Board of Directors member Dr. James Franklin, P.Geo. explains the importance of Chromite in today's world
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
This document discusses ripple marks, which are small ridges formed on sand or sediment by water or wind currents. It describes the anatomy and types of ripple marks, including symmetrical and asymmetrical ripples formed by bidirectional and unidirectional flows. Ripple marks can provide information about past environmental conditions and sediment deposition. They indicate the direction of water or wind currents and whether an area was marine or terrestrial. Ripple marks are a useful geological structure.
Lineation refers to any linear structure that occurs repetitively in rock, such as elongated pebbles or the intersection of two foliations. Lineations can indicate the direction of tectonic transport, though opinions differ on whether they are parallel or perpendicular to transport. Foliation refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks caused by shearing forces or pressure differences. Types of foliation include fracture cleavage, crenulation cleavage, slaty cleavage, and schistosity. Lineations and foliations provide important clues about a rock's deformation history.
This presentation provides an overview of the tectonics of the Aravali fold mountains in northwest India. The key points are:
1. The Aravali fold belt trends northeast-southwest and consists of folded Proterozoic sedimentary rocks ranging from 3,300-1,900 million years old.
2. The belt has undergone four phases of deformation and folding between 1,800-1,100 million years ago during the Aravali and Delhi orogenies.
3. Stratigraphy of the region includes the Banded Gneissic Complex at the base, overlain by the Bhilwara Supergroup and Aravali Supergroup, with the Delhi Supergroup
Plate tectonics, like crustal evolution, provides a basis for understanding the distribution and origin of mineral and energy deposits. Different types of ores are characterized by distinct geological environment and tectonic settings.
http://www.spiderresources.com - In this presentation by Spider Resources Board of Directors member Dr. James Franklin, P.Geo. explains the importance of Chromite in today's world
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
This document discusses ripple marks, which are small ridges formed on sand or sediment by water or wind currents. It describes the anatomy and types of ripple marks, including symmetrical and asymmetrical ripples formed by bidirectional and unidirectional flows. Ripple marks can provide information about past environmental conditions and sediment deposition. They indicate the direction of water or wind currents and whether an area was marine or terrestrial. Ripple marks are a useful geological structure.
Lineation refers to any linear structure that occurs repetitively in rock, such as elongated pebbles or the intersection of two foliations. Lineations can indicate the direction of tectonic transport, though opinions differ on whether they are parallel or perpendicular to transport. Foliation refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks caused by shearing forces or pressure differences. Types of foliation include fracture cleavage, crenulation cleavage, slaty cleavage, and schistosity. Lineations and foliations provide important clues about a rock's deformation history.
This presentation provides an overview of the tectonics of the Aravali fold mountains in northwest India. The key points are:
1. The Aravali fold belt trends northeast-southwest and consists of folded Proterozoic sedimentary rocks ranging from 3,300-1,900 million years old.
2. The belt has undergone four phases of deformation and folding between 1,800-1,100 million years ago during the Aravali and Delhi orogenies.
3. Stratigraphy of the region includes the Banded Gneissic Complex at the base, overlain by the Bhilwara Supergroup and Aravali Supergroup, with the Delhi Supergroup
Plate tectonics, like crustal evolution, provides a basis for understanding the distribution and origin of mineral and energy deposits. Different types of ores are characterized by distinct geological environment and tectonic settings.
This document discusses rubidium-strontium dating, a radiometric dating technique that determines the age of rocks based on the radioactive decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87. It describes the chemical properties of rubidium and strontium, how their relative abundances can vary in different rock types, and how the decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87 can be used to calculate the age of a rock sample. It also discusses sources of error and applications of rubidium-strontium dating.
Stable oxygen and carbon isotopes can be used as proxies for paleoclimate reconstruction. Oxygen isotopes in carbonate shells vary based on temperature and ice volume, providing information about glacial/interglacial cycles. Carbon isotopes reflect the global carbon cycle and can indicate changes in productivity, circulation, and terrestrial carbon storage over time.
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological Structures
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Division of Structures
تقسيم للتراكيب الجيولوجيه
A- Primary structures
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Burrows
B- Secondary Structures
Folds
Faults
Joints
Unconformities
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Geologic structure is any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints, and faults.
اى شكل فى الصخر ينتج من خلال عملية التشويه مثل : الصدوع والطيات
هى التشققات والتصدعات الضخمة والالتواءات العنيفة التى تشوه صخور القشرة الارضية .
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains .
Division of Structures
• Primary (or sedimentary) structures: such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, and mud cracks form in sediments during or shortly after deposition.
هى التراكيب الناتجة من تدخل العمليات الخارجية أثناء الترسيب
• Secondary structures: is that structures formed after the formations of any kind of rocks, such as folds, faults, or unconformities.
Primary structures
They are any structures in sedimentary rock formed at or shortly after the time of deposition: such as:
هى الاشكال التى تتخلف بالصخور تحت تأثير عوامل مناخية وبيئية خاصة مثل الجفاف والحرارة وتأثير الرياح والتيارات المائية وغيرها وبدون أى تدخل من جانب القوى والحركات الارضية أمثلة ذلك:
Ripple marks
علامات النيم: هي تموجات رملية صغيرة تنشأ على سطح الطبقات الرسوبية بواسطة حركة الماء أو الهواء و تكون حروف علامات النيم متعامدة على اتجاه الحركة.
They are wavelike (undulating) structures produced in granular sediment such as sand by unidirectional wind and water currents or by oscillating wave currents.
Wind and current ripples. (Asymmetric
Wave ripples. (Symmetric
Mud cracks
التشققات فى الرواسب الطينية : حيث ينكمش سطح الرسوبيات الطينية مخلفة شقوقا مميزة فى فترات الجفاف
Mud crack is a crack in clay-rich sediment that has dried out.
Cross bedding
التطبق المتقاطع هو النمط الذي تسلكه الرسوبيات الجديدة المتراكمة عند تأثرها بأي من التيارات المائية أو الهوائية. عندما تستق
This document discusses different types of metasomatism classified based on metasomatic processes and geological position. There are two main types of metasomatic processes - diffusional metasomatism which occurs through diffusion, and infiltrational metasomatism which occurs through the transfer of materials in solution. The geological positions discussed include autometasomatism near magmatic bodies, contact metasomatism at contacts between bodies, and regional metasomatism over large areas. Specific metasomatic rock types are also summarized like fenite, greisens, and skarns, which are important in studying ore deposits.
Chronostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
This document defines and describes various chronostratigraphic units used to organize rock layers based on their age. It discusses the hierarchy of units from smallest to largest: chronozone, stage, series, system, erathem, eonothem. Chronozones correspond to short intervals within named rock units. Stages are the basic working units, ranging from 3-10 million years. Larger units like series and systems contain multiple stages and span longer periods of geologic time. The largest units, erathems and eonothems, encompass multiple systems and span eras and eons, respectively.
Mantle melting occurs when heat and pressure cause partial melting of the mantle, producing basaltic magma. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock on Earth and can be further differentiated to form other igneous rock types. Evidence for the composition and processes of the mantle comes from ophiolites, dredged samples from ocean floors, nodules contained in basalts, and xenoliths brought up from deep in the mantle via kimberlite eruptions. Together this evidence indicates that the upper mantle is composed predominantly of the minerals olivine, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene which make up the rocks dunite, harzburgite, and lherzol
This document discusses the geometric classification of folds in geology. It defines what folds are and describes their key features like hinge lines, axial planes, limbs, and amplitudes. It then categorizes folds based on various criteria such as the sense of curvature (anticline, syncline), direction of younging (anticlinal, synclinal), symmetry (symmetrical, asymmetrical), nature of the hinge line (cylindrical, non-cylindrical), plunge, interlimb angle, thickness, orientation, and shape of the hinge. It provides examples of different fold types and discusses parasitic folds. The document serves as a comprehensive overview of how folds are classified geometrically in structural geology.
Plutons are large masses of igneous rock that form deep underground from slowly cooling magma. They include batholiths, which are large granite formations, as well as dikes, sills, laccoliths, and lopoliths. Batholiths form from magma forcing its way into the crust, laccoliths have a flat bottom and domed top parallel to layers, and lopoliths have a depressed center and curved bottom. Sills are sheet intrusions between sedimentary layers, while dikes cut across pre-existing rocks.
Unconformity is a surface separating younger and older rock layers that represents a period of no deposition or erosion. There are three types of unconformities: disconformity where layers are parallel, nonconformity where younger sedimentary rocks lie above older igneous or metamorphic rocks, and angular unconformity where younger strata are deposited above tilted or folded older layers. Unconformities form over long periods of millions of years where erosion removes layers and a hiatus in the geologic record results. They can be recognized by discordance in strike or dip of layers, thinning of beds, or presence of basal conglomerate.
Tectonites are deformed rocks whose fabric is due to systematic movement under external forces. Their fabric reflects the deformation history. Fabric includes the geometric arrangement of mineral grains, layers, and other features at a scale that includes many samples. Tectonites can have planar (S-tectonite), linear (L-tectonite), or both (L-S tectonite) fabrics indicating different strain types. Foliations like cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity are planar fabrics that cause rocks to break along parallel surfaces. Lineations indicate preferred linear fabrics, such as fold axes, boudins, and quartz rods. The orientation and interaction of foliations and lineations provide information about tect
Meteorite Classification and Trajectory ModelingJessie Miller
This document summarizes a student project on meteorite classification and trajectory modeling. It describes the three main types of meteorites - stony, iron, and stony iron. It discusses techniques for analyzing meteorites like thin section microscopy. The document outlines equations of motion and initial conditions used to model meteorite trajectories. Plots of orbital paths are generated and future work is proposed to model meteorite impacts or deflections off Earth.
The document provides information on the Dharwar Craton located in southwest India. It discusses the classification of the craton into the Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) and Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). Key differences between the WDC and EDC are noted, including larger greenstone belts in the WDC surrounded by older gneiss, compared to narrower greenstone belts in the EDC intruded by a Dharwar Batholith. The lithology of the cratons is also summarized, including the Sargur Group, Bababudan Group, Chitradurga Group, and younger granites like the Closepet Granite. Regional structures, met
Gives a short discussion about ore, terms like precipitation, hydothermal solution and the four different types of hydrothermal ore deposits including vein type, disseminated, massive sulfide, and stratabound deposits. Hope you'll enjoy and understand it!
Shear Zone Structural Geology by Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
This document provides an introduction to shear zones in structural geology. It defines a shear zone as a tabular zone of strain localization in the crust that can form under brittle, ductile, or intermediate conditions. Shear zones display heterogeneous strain distribution and can be continuous or discontinuous. They form in plate boundaries during plate convergence, divergence, or strike-slip motion. Rocks in shear zones may include mylonite, cataclasite, tectonites, pseudotachylyte, and breccia. Shear zones can be classified as brittle, ductile, or brittle-ductile based on the dominant deformation mechanisms.
Mineralogy and crystallography notes notes Pramoda Raj
This document provides information on the mineral olivine and includes:
1) A description of olivine's crystal structure, composition, and optical properties.
2) Details on common species of olivine defined by their magnesium and iron content.
3) Explanations of olivine's formation, alteration products, and typical geological environments.
What is an ore?, Ore deposit environments, Formation of Mineral Deposits, Endogenous (Internal) processes, Exogenous (Surficial) processes, Types of Sedimentary Rocks, Mineral Deposits Associated with Sedimentary Process, physical processes of ore deposit formation in the surficial realm, Erosion, weathering , transportation, sorting, Precipitation, Depositional Environments, Deposits formed by Weathering, Deposits formed by Sediment, Resources from the Sedimentary Environments
Kaikrishna from the Department of Geology at Kakatiya University in Warangal, Telangana, India discusses the classification of silicate minerals. Silicate minerals constitute about 90% of the Earth's crust and are composed of silicon and oxygen atoms arranged in tetrahedra. These tetrahedra can be arranged as individual units, chains, sheets, or three-dimensional networks. There are six major groups of silicate structures classified based on their atomic arrangement: neosilicates, sorosilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, and tectosilicates.
Stratigraphy is the chronological study of sedimentary rocks to understand the history of the Earth. It involves correlating and arranging rock formations based on principles like lithology, order of superposition, and fossil content. The geological time scale divides Earth's history into Eras, Periods, and Epochs as a framework for studying and comparing rock sequences globally. Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period within the Cenozoic Era.
Joints are fractures where the two walls remain in contact without shear displacement. They form due to regional tectonics, folding, faulting, or stress release during uplift or cooling. Joint spacing depends on factors like lithology, bed thickness, structural position, and strain. Regularly spaced joints may form due to pore pressure variations, stress shadows, or inter-layer forces controlling where new joints can form. Joint orientation provides information about a reservoir's permeability anisotropy.
This document discusses isotope geochemistry, specifically focusing on isotopic fractionation. It defines key terms like isotopes, fractionation, and fractionation factors. It explains how physical and chemical processes can cause fractionation of stable isotopes. Specifically, it discusses equilibrium and kinetic fractionation, temperature effects on fractionation, and using isotopes to study physical and chemical processes. Measurement techniques for isotopes are also summarized.
Twinning occurs when two or more crystals share lattice points, adding apparent symmetry. There are three types of twinning: growth twins from accidents during crystal formation, transformation twins from changes in pressure/temperature, and deformation twins from stress. Common twinning includes albite twins in plagioclase feldspar and Carlsbad twins in orthoclase. Twinning can be identified by planes or axes of added symmetry like reflection or rotation.
This document discusses twinning in crystals. It begins by defining twinning as the symmetrical intergrowth of two or more individual crystals. It describes the components of twinned crystals, including twin planes, twin axes, and composition planes. It then discusses the main types of twinning - contact, penetration, and repeated twinning. The document outlines several common ways that twinning can originate, such as during crystal growth or due to deformation. Finally, it provides examples of some common twin laws for different crystal systems, including albite and Carlsbad twinning in monoclinic and triclinic crystals.
This document discusses rubidium-strontium dating, a radiometric dating technique that determines the age of rocks based on the radioactive decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87. It describes the chemical properties of rubidium and strontium, how their relative abundances can vary in different rock types, and how the decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87 can be used to calculate the age of a rock sample. It also discusses sources of error and applications of rubidium-strontium dating.
Stable oxygen and carbon isotopes can be used as proxies for paleoclimate reconstruction. Oxygen isotopes in carbonate shells vary based on temperature and ice volume, providing information about glacial/interglacial cycles. Carbon isotopes reflect the global carbon cycle and can indicate changes in productivity, circulation, and terrestrial carbon storage over time.
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological Structures
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Division of Structures
تقسيم للتراكيب الجيولوجيه
A- Primary structures
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Burrows
B- Secondary Structures
Folds
Faults
Joints
Unconformities
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Geologic structure is any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints, and faults.
اى شكل فى الصخر ينتج من خلال عملية التشويه مثل : الصدوع والطيات
هى التشققات والتصدعات الضخمة والالتواءات العنيفة التى تشوه صخور القشرة الارضية .
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains .
Division of Structures
• Primary (or sedimentary) structures: such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, and mud cracks form in sediments during or shortly after deposition.
هى التراكيب الناتجة من تدخل العمليات الخارجية أثناء الترسيب
• Secondary structures: is that structures formed after the formations of any kind of rocks, such as folds, faults, or unconformities.
Primary structures
They are any structures in sedimentary rock formed at or shortly after the time of deposition: such as:
هى الاشكال التى تتخلف بالصخور تحت تأثير عوامل مناخية وبيئية خاصة مثل الجفاف والحرارة وتأثير الرياح والتيارات المائية وغيرها وبدون أى تدخل من جانب القوى والحركات الارضية أمثلة ذلك:
Ripple marks
علامات النيم: هي تموجات رملية صغيرة تنشأ على سطح الطبقات الرسوبية بواسطة حركة الماء أو الهواء و تكون حروف علامات النيم متعامدة على اتجاه الحركة.
They are wavelike (undulating) structures produced in granular sediment such as sand by unidirectional wind and water currents or by oscillating wave currents.
Wind and current ripples. (Asymmetric
Wave ripples. (Symmetric
Mud cracks
التشققات فى الرواسب الطينية : حيث ينكمش سطح الرسوبيات الطينية مخلفة شقوقا مميزة فى فترات الجفاف
Mud crack is a crack in clay-rich sediment that has dried out.
Cross bedding
التطبق المتقاطع هو النمط الذي تسلكه الرسوبيات الجديدة المتراكمة عند تأثرها بأي من التيارات المائية أو الهوائية. عندما تستق
This document discusses different types of metasomatism classified based on metasomatic processes and geological position. There are two main types of metasomatic processes - diffusional metasomatism which occurs through diffusion, and infiltrational metasomatism which occurs through the transfer of materials in solution. The geological positions discussed include autometasomatism near magmatic bodies, contact metasomatism at contacts between bodies, and regional metasomatism over large areas. Specific metasomatic rock types are also summarized like fenite, greisens, and skarns, which are important in studying ore deposits.
Chronostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
This document defines and describes various chronostratigraphic units used to organize rock layers based on their age. It discusses the hierarchy of units from smallest to largest: chronozone, stage, series, system, erathem, eonothem. Chronozones correspond to short intervals within named rock units. Stages are the basic working units, ranging from 3-10 million years. Larger units like series and systems contain multiple stages and span longer periods of geologic time. The largest units, erathems and eonothems, encompass multiple systems and span eras and eons, respectively.
Mantle melting occurs when heat and pressure cause partial melting of the mantle, producing basaltic magma. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock on Earth and can be further differentiated to form other igneous rock types. Evidence for the composition and processes of the mantle comes from ophiolites, dredged samples from ocean floors, nodules contained in basalts, and xenoliths brought up from deep in the mantle via kimberlite eruptions. Together this evidence indicates that the upper mantle is composed predominantly of the minerals olivine, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene which make up the rocks dunite, harzburgite, and lherzol
This document discusses the geometric classification of folds in geology. It defines what folds are and describes their key features like hinge lines, axial planes, limbs, and amplitudes. It then categorizes folds based on various criteria such as the sense of curvature (anticline, syncline), direction of younging (anticlinal, synclinal), symmetry (symmetrical, asymmetrical), nature of the hinge line (cylindrical, non-cylindrical), plunge, interlimb angle, thickness, orientation, and shape of the hinge. It provides examples of different fold types and discusses parasitic folds. The document serves as a comprehensive overview of how folds are classified geometrically in structural geology.
Plutons are large masses of igneous rock that form deep underground from slowly cooling magma. They include batholiths, which are large granite formations, as well as dikes, sills, laccoliths, and lopoliths. Batholiths form from magma forcing its way into the crust, laccoliths have a flat bottom and domed top parallel to layers, and lopoliths have a depressed center and curved bottom. Sills are sheet intrusions between sedimentary layers, while dikes cut across pre-existing rocks.
Unconformity is a surface separating younger and older rock layers that represents a period of no deposition or erosion. There are three types of unconformities: disconformity where layers are parallel, nonconformity where younger sedimentary rocks lie above older igneous or metamorphic rocks, and angular unconformity where younger strata are deposited above tilted or folded older layers. Unconformities form over long periods of millions of years where erosion removes layers and a hiatus in the geologic record results. They can be recognized by discordance in strike or dip of layers, thinning of beds, or presence of basal conglomerate.
Tectonites are deformed rocks whose fabric is due to systematic movement under external forces. Their fabric reflects the deformation history. Fabric includes the geometric arrangement of mineral grains, layers, and other features at a scale that includes many samples. Tectonites can have planar (S-tectonite), linear (L-tectonite), or both (L-S tectonite) fabrics indicating different strain types. Foliations like cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity are planar fabrics that cause rocks to break along parallel surfaces. Lineations indicate preferred linear fabrics, such as fold axes, boudins, and quartz rods. The orientation and interaction of foliations and lineations provide information about tect
Meteorite Classification and Trajectory ModelingJessie Miller
This document summarizes a student project on meteorite classification and trajectory modeling. It describes the three main types of meteorites - stony, iron, and stony iron. It discusses techniques for analyzing meteorites like thin section microscopy. The document outlines equations of motion and initial conditions used to model meteorite trajectories. Plots of orbital paths are generated and future work is proposed to model meteorite impacts or deflections off Earth.
The document provides information on the Dharwar Craton located in southwest India. It discusses the classification of the craton into the Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) and Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). Key differences between the WDC and EDC are noted, including larger greenstone belts in the WDC surrounded by older gneiss, compared to narrower greenstone belts in the EDC intruded by a Dharwar Batholith. The lithology of the cratons is also summarized, including the Sargur Group, Bababudan Group, Chitradurga Group, and younger granites like the Closepet Granite. Regional structures, met
Gives a short discussion about ore, terms like precipitation, hydothermal solution and the four different types of hydrothermal ore deposits including vein type, disseminated, massive sulfide, and stratabound deposits. Hope you'll enjoy and understand it!
Shear Zone Structural Geology by Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
This document provides an introduction to shear zones in structural geology. It defines a shear zone as a tabular zone of strain localization in the crust that can form under brittle, ductile, or intermediate conditions. Shear zones display heterogeneous strain distribution and can be continuous or discontinuous. They form in plate boundaries during plate convergence, divergence, or strike-slip motion. Rocks in shear zones may include mylonite, cataclasite, tectonites, pseudotachylyte, and breccia. Shear zones can be classified as brittle, ductile, or brittle-ductile based on the dominant deformation mechanisms.
Mineralogy and crystallography notes notes Pramoda Raj
This document provides information on the mineral olivine and includes:
1) A description of olivine's crystal structure, composition, and optical properties.
2) Details on common species of olivine defined by their magnesium and iron content.
3) Explanations of olivine's formation, alteration products, and typical geological environments.
What is an ore?, Ore deposit environments, Formation of Mineral Deposits, Endogenous (Internal) processes, Exogenous (Surficial) processes, Types of Sedimentary Rocks, Mineral Deposits Associated with Sedimentary Process, physical processes of ore deposit formation in the surficial realm, Erosion, weathering , transportation, sorting, Precipitation, Depositional Environments, Deposits formed by Weathering, Deposits formed by Sediment, Resources from the Sedimentary Environments
Kaikrishna from the Department of Geology at Kakatiya University in Warangal, Telangana, India discusses the classification of silicate minerals. Silicate minerals constitute about 90% of the Earth's crust and are composed of silicon and oxygen atoms arranged in tetrahedra. These tetrahedra can be arranged as individual units, chains, sheets, or three-dimensional networks. There are six major groups of silicate structures classified based on their atomic arrangement: neosilicates, sorosilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, and tectosilicates.
Stratigraphy is the chronological study of sedimentary rocks to understand the history of the Earth. It involves correlating and arranging rock formations based on principles like lithology, order of superposition, and fossil content. The geological time scale divides Earth's history into Eras, Periods, and Epochs as a framework for studying and comparing rock sequences globally. Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period within the Cenozoic Era.
Joints are fractures where the two walls remain in contact without shear displacement. They form due to regional tectonics, folding, faulting, or stress release during uplift or cooling. Joint spacing depends on factors like lithology, bed thickness, structural position, and strain. Regularly spaced joints may form due to pore pressure variations, stress shadows, or inter-layer forces controlling where new joints can form. Joint orientation provides information about a reservoir's permeability anisotropy.
This document discusses isotope geochemistry, specifically focusing on isotopic fractionation. It defines key terms like isotopes, fractionation, and fractionation factors. It explains how physical and chemical processes can cause fractionation of stable isotopes. Specifically, it discusses equilibrium and kinetic fractionation, temperature effects on fractionation, and using isotopes to study physical and chemical processes. Measurement techniques for isotopes are also summarized.
Twinning occurs when two or more crystals share lattice points, adding apparent symmetry. There are three types of twinning: growth twins from accidents during crystal formation, transformation twins from changes in pressure/temperature, and deformation twins from stress. Common twinning includes albite twins in plagioclase feldspar and Carlsbad twins in orthoclase. Twinning can be identified by planes or axes of added symmetry like reflection or rotation.
This document discusses twinning in crystals. It begins by defining twinning as the symmetrical intergrowth of two or more individual crystals. It describes the components of twinned crystals, including twin planes, twin axes, and composition planes. It then discusses the main types of twinning - contact, penetration, and repeated twinning. The document outlines several common ways that twinning can originate, such as during crystal growth or due to deformation. Finally, it provides examples of some common twin laws for different crystal systems, including albite and Carlsbad twinning in monoclinic and triclinic crystals.
Twinning occurs when two crystals of the same substance grow together in a crystallographically controlled manner. There are several types of twinning defined by the twinning element, which can be a twin plane, twin axis, or twin center. Twinning is common across different crystal systems, with typical twinning elements being low index crystal planes or directions. Characteristic twinning patterns can be used to identify minerals under the microscope.
Twinning occurs when two crystals of the same substance share a composition surface or plane. There are four main types of twins: contact twins, which have a regular composition surface; penetration twins, which have an irregular composition surface; polysynthetic twins, which have three or more crystals twinned along the same law with parallel composition surfaces; and cyclic twins, which have successive composition planes that are not parallel. Twinning can result from errors during crystal growth, variations in temperature/pressure stresses on the crystal lattice, or stresses that cause the crystal to relieve strain through "warping".
Zeolites are microporous aluminosilicate minerals that are commonly used as catalysts and molecular sieves. They form naturally but can also be synthesized. JBW zeolite has a framework structure with alternating silicon and aluminum atoms linked by oxygen bridges. It contains channels of different sizes, including 8-rings that contain exchangeable cations and 6-rings that contain only sodium ions. X-ray diffraction is commonly used to determine zeolite structures, while neutron diffraction and NMR can provide additional details like hydrogen positions.
This document discusses the properties of solid state materials. It defines crystalline and amorphous solids, and describes the different types of crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic. It also discusses crystal symmetry, unit cells, Bravais lattices, coordination number, X-ray crystallography, Bragg's law, and the different classifications of crystals based on bonding.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry and properties of solid surfaces. It discusses the following key points:
- Solids have definite shapes and volumes due to strong forces holding their atoms, molecules, or ions in fixed positions. This gives solids their rigidity and mechanical strength.
- There are two main types of solids - crystalline solids which have a regular repeating structure and amorphous solids which lack long-range order.
- Techniques for characterizing solid surfaces include low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) which can provide information about surface structure and composition.
- LEED specifically works by bombarding a crystalline surface
This document discusses different types of crystalline solids. It defines a crystalline solid as having a well-ordered structure with definite arrangements of particles. Crystalline solids are made up of repeating units called unit cells, which together form a crystal lattice. The document describes the different packing arrangements of particles in unit cells and classifies crystalline solids into four main types - ionic, covalent, metallic and molecular crystals - based on the type of bonding forces between particles. Each type of crystalline solid is characterized by distinct properties like melting point, conductivity, hardness and thermal stability.
This document provides a summary of a lecture on solid state physics. It discusses several key topics:
1. It defines solid state physics as explaining the properties of solid materials by analyzing the interactions between atomic nuclei and electrons within solids.
2. It notes that most solids are crystalline, having a regular repeated atomic structure, and that crystalline solids are easier to analyze than non-crystalline materials.
3. It outlines the lecture, which will cover crystal structures, interatomic forces, and crystal dynamics to explain the behavior and properties of solids.
The document discusses crystal defects and their significance. It begins with an introduction to crystals and crystal defects. There are four main types of crystal defects discussed: point defects, line defects, surface defects, and volume defects. Point defects include vacancies, interstitials, and impurities. Line defects are dislocations like edge and screw dislocations. Surface defects include grain boundaries, twin boundaries, and stacking faults. Volume defects occur on a larger scale and include voids, porosity, and precipitates. In conclusion, the presence discusses how crystal defects can impact properties and significance like improving semiconductor performance or lowering melting points.
Crystal Structures & their imperfectionMuveen Khan
The document discusses crystal lattices, unit cells, crystal systems, and defects in solids. There are 14 types of Bravais lattices that make up crystal structures. A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit that generates the entire crystal lattice when translated in different directions. There are 7 crystal systems that differ based on their axial relationships and interaxial angles. Common defects in solids include vacancies when lattice sites are empty, interstitials when particles occupy interstitial sites, Frenkel defects involving cation displacement, and Schottky defects involving missing cation and anion pairs.
The document discusses key concepts regarding solid states and crystallography. It defines crystalline and amorphous solids, and describes the ordered crystal lattice structure of crystalline solids. It then outlines three fundamental laws of crystallography: 1) the law of constancy of interfacial angles, 2) Hauy's law of rationality of indices, and 3) the law of constancy of symmetry. The document also discusses techniques for determining crystal structures, including Bragg's law of diffraction and X-ray diffraction methods like the Laue method and powder method.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry. It defines solids as matter with a definite shape and volume, where the constituent particles possess fixed positions and can only oscillate. Solids are classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the ordering of particles. Crystalline solids have long-range order while amorphous solids only have short-range order. Important properties of solids discussed include density, rigidity, melting points, and electrical conductivity. The document also describes different types of crystalline solids based on bonding - ionic, molecular, metallic, and covalent network solids. Unit cell structure, crystal systems, and packing efficiency of particles in cubic unit cells are also summarized.
A solid is a state of matter characterized by particles arranged in a stable, close-packed structure that gives solids a definite shape and volume. Solids can be crystalline or amorphous. Crystalline solids have particles arranged in a regular, repeating pattern throughout the crystal lattice. Amorphous solids lack long-range order and have particles arranged irregularly over short distances. The crystal lattice is made up of repeating units called unit cells, which define the symmetry and geometry of the crystal structure. Unit cells come in seven main types depending on their parameters. Crystalline solids are further classified based on the type of bonds between particles as ionic, covalent, metallic, or molecular solids.
This document discusses different types of solids and their crystal structures. It describes crystalline solids as having long-range periodic atomic arrangements, while amorphous solids lack long-range order. Polycrystalline solids consist of many small crystallites. Common crystal structures include body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed arrangements. Defects in crystal structures like point defects and dislocations are also summarized.
This document discusses crystal defects and their significance. It begins with an introduction to crystals and crystal defects. There are four main types of crystal defects: point defects, line defects, surface defects, and order-disorder defects. Point defects include vacancy defects, interstitial defects, impurity defects, and non-stoichiometric defects. Line defects cause dislocations like edge and screw dislocations. Surface defects occur at grain boundaries. Order-disorder defects involve random atomic arrangements. Crystal defects are significant as they can influence material properties and enable applications in areas like semiconductors, lowering melting points, and nanotube growth. In conclusion, no crystal is perfect and defects are usually present and often useful.
Water Splitting: From Electrode to Green Energy SystemAbeni9
Solid crystals are not perfect. These imperfections in the crystalline arrangement of the atoms in space occur as isolated points, along lines or as surfaces in the structure.
This Chapter will discuss Point Defects in crystals.
The most important role played by point defects in the behaviour of solids is in diffusion, i.e., the atom-by-atom transport of components through the crystal lattice.
Crystallography is the branch of science that studies crystals, their growth and structure. It deals with crystals' external form, internal arrangement of atoms, and physical properties. Crystals have a regularly repeating internal structure. Miller indices are a notation system used to describe crystal planes and directions within a crystal lattice by three integers h, k, l. The law of rational indices states that the intercepts made by a crystal plane with the unit cell axes are inversely proportional to integers that become the Miller indices. Determining Miller indices involves finding intercepts with axes, converting to fractional coordinates, and taking reciprocals.
This document discusses different types of solids and their properties. There are two main types of solids - crystalline solids and amorphous solids. Crystalline solids have a regular repeating pattern of atoms and melt at a fixed temperature, while amorphous solids have irregular atomic arrangements and melt over a range of temperatures. Properties like cleavage, heat of fusion, and anisotropy also differ between the two types of solids. Methods for analyzing crystal structures using X-ray diffraction like Bragg's equation and the rotating crystal method are also summarized.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Pengantar Penggunaan Flutter - Dart programming language1.pptx
Twinning in a crystal
1. DR. HARISINGH G0UR VISHWAVIDYALAYA
SAGAR, M.P.
(A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY
UNDER GUIDANCE OF:
PROF. R.K. TRIVEDI
PRESENTED BY:
PRADEEP KUMAR
M.Tech IST SEMESTER
Reg. No-Y18251017
2. Contents
Introduction
Elements of twinning
Development of twinning
kinds of twinning
Common types of twins in different crystal
systems
Why we study twinning
2
3. INTRODUCTION
Well formed single crystal are seldom in nature, where as
aggregates of crystal are common .
TWINNING:
During the growth of crystal if it is subjected to
stress or temperature /pressure , crystallization
two or more crystal of same substance shows
symmetrical intergrowth and the individuals have
different orientation related by a symmetry operation,
the crystal are said to
be twinned crystal .
ex- chrsoberely
3
4. ELEMENTS OF TWINNING
TWIN PLANE: Reflection across a lattice plane .
TWIN AXIS: An axis about which Rotation is imagined
to have occurred to produce the twinned crystal .
COMPOSITION PLANE : Surface along which the lattice
point are shared in twinned crystal .
4
5. DEVELOPMENT OF TWINS
The development of twins is governed by certain twins laws
:-
1. An axis of even fold symmetry can never become a twin
axis ,only 3 -fold symmetry axis can serve as a twin axis .
2. Twin axis is always normal to the twin plane but need
not be normal to composition plane .
3. Twinning plane never coincide with symmetry planes
4. Twins that develop in classes with a center of symmetry
have both twin axis and twinning plane perpendicular to
it .
5
6. KINDS OF TWINNING
In a twinned crystal the two parts may
appears as :-
Contact Twins
Penetration twins
Simple twins
Multiple twins
GENETIC KINDS OF TWINS:
Growth twins
Transformation twins
Gliding twins
6
7. In a twinned crystal the two parts
may appears as
1. United along a regular composition plane merely in contact relationship
with other are called contact twinning
An example shown here is a crystal of orthoclase twinning.
2. Two halves of a crystals of twin interpenetrate more or less
they are called as penetration twins.
The composition plane of it is slightly irregular surface.
orthoclase crystal twinned with [001] as twin axis .
7
8. If the twins are composed of three or more
individual crystals they ae called multiple twins
Types of multiple twins :-
1. The composition surfaces are parallel to one another, they are
called polysynthetic twinning.
Plagioclase commonly shows this type of twinning, such
twinning is one of the most diagnostic features of plagioclase.
2. The composition plane is not parallel and tends to turn in circle
are called cyclic twin .
T he cyclic twin is beautifully shown by aragonite
8
9. Genetic types of twinning
GROWTH TWINS
During the growth of a crystal there may be changes
inside the magma (like temperature , pressure and flow)
which cause elements of magma to alter a crystal’s
orientation.
penetration twin in orthoclase and albite are growth
twins.
9
10. Deformation/GLIDE TWINS
In the Gliding twins certain atoms shift from their lowest
energy state to the twinned position of the moderately low
energy.
A FCC metal like aluminium experiences extreme stress it
will experience twinning as seen in the case of explosions.
Calcite shows gliding twins.
10
11. Transformation Twins
This is occurs when a high temperature crystal is transformed into low
temperature polymorph on change of condition
The right handed and left handed quartz are the best example.
11
12. Common tyes of twins in different crystal system :
1.Isometric system
Spinel law – Twin reflection on (1 1 1) plane.
Twin rotation on [111] and [001].
On [001], known as the Iron Cross, the twin
axis gives the mineral apparent 4-fold
symmetry about 3 perpendicular axes.
12
spinel
13. Twinning usually occurs on {011}
forming contact twins
Rutile (TiO2 - left) and casseterite
(SnO2 – below) often show this
type of twinning
13
2. Tetragonal system:
* knee shaped or geniculated twins
14. 3. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
* Calcite Twinning
Most common twin laws that are observed in
calcite crystals are {0001} and the
rhombohedron[011 2]
Both are contact twins, but the {01bar12} twins
can also occur as polysynthetic twins that
result from deformation.
Image shows[0112] twin.
14
15. *Twinning in quartz*
Brazil Law – [11 𝟐0]is a penetration twin that results from
transformation.
Dauphiné Law - [0001] - is also a penetration twin that
results from transformation.
Japanese Law - [112𝟐]is a contact twin that results from
accidents during growth.
15
16. 4. Orthorhombic System
Cyclic Twins - The minerals aragonite
(CaCO3) , chrysoberyl (BeAl2O4), and
cerrusite (PbCO3) commonly develop
twinning on {110} plane.
Figs show :- Sturolite twins
16
Aragonite
17. 5. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
Manebach LAW-A type of contact
twinning seen in orthoclase on
the {001} plane.
Diagnostic of orthoclase when it
occurs.
17
swallow tail twins
orthoclase
18. Carlsbad law - [010] - forms
a penetration twin in the
mineral orthoclase. Crystals
twinned under the carlsbad
law show two inter-grown
crystals, one rotated 180
degree from the other about
the [010] axis.
Baveno law - {021} - forms a
contact twin in the mineral
orthoclase.
18
19. 6. TRICLINIC SYSTEM
Albite Law - As described previously, plagioclase
(NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) very commonly shows albite
polysynthetic twinning. The twin law - {010} indicates
that the twinning occurs perpendicular to the C
crystallographic axis.
Pericline Law - The pericline law has [010] as the twin axis
. Pericline twinning occurs as the result of monoclinic
orthoclase or sanidine transforming to microcline.
Pericline twinning usually occurs in the combination with
Albite twinning.
19
20. WHY WE STUDY TWINNING ?
Twinning is a distuinguishing feature in thin section of many
minerals like in plagioclase (polysynthetic twinning),
microcline(cross hatched twinning) , orthoclase (simple
twinning) or in many other minerals.
Twinning or twinning tendencies may either promote or
preclude the use of mineral in industry, like twinning in quartz
preclude the use of quartz either lens or oscillator.
Twinning is one of the causes of parting which is closely
resembles cleavage .
20