Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that differ from bacteria in having true nuclei and organelles. Most fungi are multicellular and have cell walls containing chitin. Fungi can be classified based on their morphology and reproductive structures. Important characteristics include whether they are molds, yeasts, or dimorphic. Laboratory identification of fungi involves microscopic examination of stained smears and cultures as well as culture characteristics. Direct visualization with KOH preparations and histopathology are used to diagnose fungal infections.
This document provides information on the Bordetella genus of bacteria, including B. pertussis, B. parapertussis, B. bronchiseptica, and B. avium. It describes their morphology, culture characteristics, virulence factors, mechanisms of infection, clinical manifestations of whooping cough caused by B. pertussis, epidemiology, laboratory diagnosis, treatment, and prophylaxis. Key points include that B. pertussis causes the most common form of whooping cough in humans and produces virulence factors like pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase toxin that contribute to disease pathogenesis.
Powerpoint on viruses, bacteria, protists and Fungi. Intended for the SA Grade 11 Life Sciences syllabus. Includes information on HIV, virus reproduction, malaria, TB, thrush, characteristics of microbes etc. Hope it helps!
This document summarizes the morphology and structures of bacteria. It describes that bacteria range in size from 0.2-1.5 micrometers in diameter. Bacteria can be divided into two main groups - prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes include bacteria and blue-green algae, while eukaryotes include fungi, algae, protozoa, and slime molds. The shapes of bacteria include coccus, bacillus, coccobacillus, vibrio, spirillum, and spirochetes. Key bacterial structures include the cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, flagella, pili, capsules, and endospores
Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium that causes anthrax, has several unique characteristics:
1) It forms spores that allow it to survive in soil for many years and resist heat and chemicals.
2) It was one of the first bacteria observed under a microscope and the first where communicable disease was shown to be transmitted via blood.
3) It produces a polypeptide capsule that is important for its virulence and allows it to evade the immune system within tissues.
Bacillus is a genus of gram-positive, spore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitous in the environment. Some Bacillus species are pathogenic to humans and animals, including B. anthracis, which causes anthrax, and B. cereus, which can cause food poisoning. B. anthracis forms durable spores that allow the bacteria to survive for decades in the environment. It causes anthrax, which presents as one of three forms: cutaneous, inhalation, or gastrointestinal. The inhalation form is often fatal if untreated. B. cereus can cause two types of food poisoning - an emetic type or diarrhea type - through the production of enterotoxins. While most Bacillus
This document provides an introduction to medical mycology, including definitions of key terms and descriptions of fungal morphology and biology. It discusses the classification of fungi and describes the four main groups. The document also summarizes the different types of fungal infections and outlines the key steps for laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections, including specimen collection and processing, direct examination, culture, identification, and antifungal susceptibility testing.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that differ from bacteria in having true nuclei and organelles. Most fungi are multicellular and have cell walls containing chitin. Fungi can be classified based on their morphology and reproductive structures. Important characteristics include whether they are molds, yeasts, or dimorphic. Laboratory identification of fungi involves microscopic examination of stained smears and cultures as well as culture characteristics. Direct visualization with KOH preparations and histopathology are used to diagnose fungal infections.
This document provides information on the Bordetella genus of bacteria, including B. pertussis, B. parapertussis, B. bronchiseptica, and B. avium. It describes their morphology, culture characteristics, virulence factors, mechanisms of infection, clinical manifestations of whooping cough caused by B. pertussis, epidemiology, laboratory diagnosis, treatment, and prophylaxis. Key points include that B. pertussis causes the most common form of whooping cough in humans and produces virulence factors like pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase toxin that contribute to disease pathogenesis.
Powerpoint on viruses, bacteria, protists and Fungi. Intended for the SA Grade 11 Life Sciences syllabus. Includes information on HIV, virus reproduction, malaria, TB, thrush, characteristics of microbes etc. Hope it helps!
This document summarizes the morphology and structures of bacteria. It describes that bacteria range in size from 0.2-1.5 micrometers in diameter. Bacteria can be divided into two main groups - prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes include bacteria and blue-green algae, while eukaryotes include fungi, algae, protozoa, and slime molds. The shapes of bacteria include coccus, bacillus, coccobacillus, vibrio, spirillum, and spirochetes. Key bacterial structures include the cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, flagella, pili, capsules, and endospores
Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium that causes anthrax, has several unique characteristics:
1) It forms spores that allow it to survive in soil for many years and resist heat and chemicals.
2) It was one of the first bacteria observed under a microscope and the first where communicable disease was shown to be transmitted via blood.
3) It produces a polypeptide capsule that is important for its virulence and allows it to evade the immune system within tissues.
Bacillus is a genus of gram-positive, spore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitous in the environment. Some Bacillus species are pathogenic to humans and animals, including B. anthracis, which causes anthrax, and B. cereus, which can cause food poisoning. B. anthracis forms durable spores that allow the bacteria to survive for decades in the environment. It causes anthrax, which presents as one of three forms: cutaneous, inhalation, or gastrointestinal. The inhalation form is often fatal if untreated. B. cereus can cause two types of food poisoning - an emetic type or diarrhea type - through the production of enterotoxins. While most Bacillus
This document provides an introduction to medical mycology, including definitions of key terms and descriptions of fungal morphology and biology. It discusses the classification of fungi and describes the four main groups. The document also summarizes the different types of fungal infections and outlines the key steps for laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections, including specimen collection and processing, direct examination, culture, identification, and antifungal susceptibility testing.
The above power point presentation describes the bacteria Hemophilus influezae causing meningitis in children
It is described under Morphology , Cultural characteristics, Anitgenic structure , Diseases , Laboratory diagnosis.
Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic and lack chlorophyll. They range in size from 1-150 micrometers and can be naked or covered by a pellicle. Locomotion is via pseudopodia, cilia, or none. Nutrition is holophytic, holozytic, saprophytic or parasitic. Reproduction can be sexual via conjugation or asexual via binary fission. Protozoa are classified into Sporozoa, Ciliophora, Rhizopoda, and Zoomastigophora. They can be beneficial by providing food, controlling insects, and purifying water, or harmful by poll
An incubator provides optimal conditions for growth of organisms by maintaining constant temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors. It consists of an insulated cabinet with a control panel to regulate temperature, shelves to hold cultures, and filters. Incubators are used in microbiology labs and hospitals to cultivate microorganisms and care for premature infants. They must be regularly calibrated and validated to ensure accurate temperature, humidity, and other readings. Common types include CO2, shaking, and anaerobic incubators used for specific growth conditions. Proper operation and cleaning are important to avoid temperature fluctuations or contamination.
The document discusses the structure, types, and reproduction of fungi. It outlines that students will observe fungi samples under microscopes, present on topics related to fungi, and complete a post-test and reflection. It also provides information on the different structures of fungi like spores, hyphae, and mushrooms. Various types of fungi are named and fungi are compared to plants in how they obtain nutrients and reproduce.
There are billions of microbes that have not been discovered yet. Many microbes are necessary for human survival or are beneficial. Microbes can be used for industrial purposes. In nature, microbes help plants grow through interactions in soil and some produce oxygen. Microbes are essential for decomposition which recycles nutrients. In food, microbes are used to make yogurt, cheese, bread, and alcohol through fermentation. Important microbes in medicine include penicillin-producing fungi and microbes used in vaccines. Probiotics are live microbes that benefit human health by interacting with pathogens, reinforcing barriers, competing for resources, and strengthening the immune system.
The document provides information on mycology including the classification, morphology, and laboratory diagnosis of fungi. It describes the characteristics of fungi, including their eukaryotic nature and ability to exist in both yeast and mold forms. The document also outlines the different types of fungal infections including cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic, and opportunistic mycoses.
This document outlines 5 basic microbiological techniques: inoculation, incubation, inspection, isolation, and identification. It describes how samples are introduced into nutrient media and incubated to allow microbial growth. Microbes are then inspected visually and microscopically, isolated into pure cultures, and identified using biochemical and morphological characteristics. A variety of media types and stains are used to selectively grow, differentiate, and identify microorganisms. Microscopy techniques provide higher magnification views of cellular structures and staining patterns for classification.
This document provides an overview of Entamoeba, including its classification, morphology, life cycle, virulence factors, transmission, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Key points include:
- Entamoeba histolytica is a pathogenic protozoan that can cause intestinal and extra-intestinal infections like amoebic dysentery and liver abscess.
- It has three morphological stages - trophozoite, precystic, and cystic stages. Trophozoites cause tissue invasion and disease.
- The infective transmissive stage is the mature quadrinucleated cyst which is ingested and excysts in the intestine.
- Virulence factors like lect
This document outlines general safety rules and procedures for working in a medical microbiology laboratory. It discusses hazards such as exposure to biological agents, chemicals, radiation, and electrical accidents. The key safety practices include wearing personal protective equipment, keeping work areas clean and uncluttered, properly storing chemicals and biological materials, and knowing emergency procedures for injuries or accidents. Following these safety guidelines is important for protecting laboratory workers from health and safety risks.
Streptococcus pneumoniae, commonly known as pneumococcus, is a Gram-positive bacterium that is a major cause of pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. It was first isolated in 1881 by George Sternberg and Louis Pasteur. There are over 90 known serotypes of S. pneumoniae. It is a facultative anaerobe that is normally found in the upper respiratory tract of humans. Virulence factors include an antiphagocytic polysaccharide capsule and pneumolysin toxin. Diagnosis involves culture and identification of the bacterium from clinical specimens. Treatment involves antibiotics like penicillin, with vaccines available to help prevent pneumococcal disease.
KOH mount preparation involves mixing specimens like skin or nails with 10-20% potassium hydroxide solution to clear tissues and cellular debris, allowing visualization of fungal hyphae and spores under a microscope. Papanicolaou stain uses acidic and basic dyes to stain cell nuclei blue and cytoplasm colors, aiding identification of candida species. India ink preparation detects encapsulated yeasts like Cryptococcus neoformans in cerebrospinal fluid by staining the background ink black and leaving the capsule clear.
This document discusses opportunistic mycoses that occur in individuals with compromised immune systems. It focuses on several common fungal causes including Aspergillus, Mucor, and Penicillium species. Aspergillosis is described in detail, outlining the different clinical manifestations depending on infection site and immune status. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination and culture of specimens. Treatment involves antifungal therapies like amphotericin B and azoles.
This document discusses Mycobacterium leprae, the bacteria that causes leprosy. It describes the cultural characteristics of M. leprae, noting that they are unable to be cultivated in other medias. It then discusses the pathogenesis and types of leprosy. There are four main types described - lepromatous, tuberculoid, dimorphic/borderline, and indeterminate. The types are distinguished based on the appearance of skin lesions and presence of bacteria. Diagnosis involves examination of skin and nerves, biopsy of skin or nerves, and acid fast staining to look for the bacteria. Treatment recommended is multidrug therapy using dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine
This document summarizes several bacterial genera - Yersinia, Pasteurella, and Francisella. It describes their general properties, species, diseases caused, morphology, culture characteristics, biochemical reactions, epidemiology, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis. Key points include Yersinia pestis causing plague, Pasteurella multocida causing septicemia, and Francisella tularensis causing tularemia.
Bacteria are classified in several ways:
1. By staining (Gram positive/negative, acid-fast), shape (cocci, bacilli), motility, environment (aerobic/anaerobic).
2. The bacterial cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, flagella/fimbriae and cytoplasm. The cell wall provides structure and protection through its peptidoglycan layer.
3. Bacteria are further classified based on nutrition sources, temperature, pH and salt tolerance ranges they thrive in. Most bacteria serve important ecological roles while some can cause disease.
This document provides information about virus structure and classification. It begins with the history of virology and defines viruses. It describes the differences between bacteria and viruses, and between DNA and RNA viruses. It outlines the characteristics, structure, replication process, and reaction to physical and chemical agents of viruses. It discusses viral morphology, classification based on shape and presence of an envelope. It also covers bacteriophage structure and important human viruses classified by genome type and associated disease.
Microorganisms are unicellular or multicellular organisms that are microscopic. They were the earliest form of life on Earth and exist in nearly every habitat. Microorganisms can be beneficial, for example in food production, or harmful, as pathogens that cause disease. While some microbes like bacteria and fungi have been used for millennia to make foods, others like Streptococcus and Salmonella can cause illnesses. Important discoveries like antibiotics and their producers such as penicillin have allowed humans to combat harmful microbial infections.
1. Subcutaneous mycoses are chronic fungal or bacterial infections of the subcutaneous tissues that can spread through the lymphatics or form sinus tracts. They are caused by organisms found in soil and are most common in tropical regions.
2. Mycetoma, also known as Madura foot, is a common subcutaneous mycosis characterized by a slowly progressive granulomatous infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues of the extremities. It is caused by fungi like Madurella mycetomatis or bacteria like Actinomyces.
3. Diagnosis involves identification of fungal or bacterial grains from infected lesions through microscopic examination of potassium hydroxide mounts, staining techniques,
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria which most commonly affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with active TB cough or sneeze. Common symptoms include cough, fever, night sweats and weight loss. Diagnosis involves chest x-ray and sputum culture. Treatment requires taking multiple antibiotic drugs daily for 6-9 months. Directly observed treatment short course chemotherapy (DOTS) involves health workers directly observing patients take their medications to ensure compliance. Tuberculosis remains a major global health issue and India has a high burden of cases.
This ppt gives you idea about pathophysiology of tuberculosis and the pharmacology of drugs used to treat this infection. And it also give deep introduction of molecular interaction of mycobacteria with body i.e.. immune response by human to this mycobacteria.
it also gives you idea about treatment regimens and strategy for TB. discussed the different types of TB and mechanism of development of resistance by mycobacteria for anti-TB drugs.
The above power point presentation describes the bacteria Hemophilus influezae causing meningitis in children
It is described under Morphology , Cultural characteristics, Anitgenic structure , Diseases , Laboratory diagnosis.
Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic and lack chlorophyll. They range in size from 1-150 micrometers and can be naked or covered by a pellicle. Locomotion is via pseudopodia, cilia, or none. Nutrition is holophytic, holozytic, saprophytic or parasitic. Reproduction can be sexual via conjugation or asexual via binary fission. Protozoa are classified into Sporozoa, Ciliophora, Rhizopoda, and Zoomastigophora. They can be beneficial by providing food, controlling insects, and purifying water, or harmful by poll
An incubator provides optimal conditions for growth of organisms by maintaining constant temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors. It consists of an insulated cabinet with a control panel to regulate temperature, shelves to hold cultures, and filters. Incubators are used in microbiology labs and hospitals to cultivate microorganisms and care for premature infants. They must be regularly calibrated and validated to ensure accurate temperature, humidity, and other readings. Common types include CO2, shaking, and anaerobic incubators used for specific growth conditions. Proper operation and cleaning are important to avoid temperature fluctuations or contamination.
The document discusses the structure, types, and reproduction of fungi. It outlines that students will observe fungi samples under microscopes, present on topics related to fungi, and complete a post-test and reflection. It also provides information on the different structures of fungi like spores, hyphae, and mushrooms. Various types of fungi are named and fungi are compared to plants in how they obtain nutrients and reproduce.
There are billions of microbes that have not been discovered yet. Many microbes are necessary for human survival or are beneficial. Microbes can be used for industrial purposes. In nature, microbes help plants grow through interactions in soil and some produce oxygen. Microbes are essential for decomposition which recycles nutrients. In food, microbes are used to make yogurt, cheese, bread, and alcohol through fermentation. Important microbes in medicine include penicillin-producing fungi and microbes used in vaccines. Probiotics are live microbes that benefit human health by interacting with pathogens, reinforcing barriers, competing for resources, and strengthening the immune system.
The document provides information on mycology including the classification, morphology, and laboratory diagnosis of fungi. It describes the characteristics of fungi, including their eukaryotic nature and ability to exist in both yeast and mold forms. The document also outlines the different types of fungal infections including cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic, and opportunistic mycoses.
This document outlines 5 basic microbiological techniques: inoculation, incubation, inspection, isolation, and identification. It describes how samples are introduced into nutrient media and incubated to allow microbial growth. Microbes are then inspected visually and microscopically, isolated into pure cultures, and identified using biochemical and morphological characteristics. A variety of media types and stains are used to selectively grow, differentiate, and identify microorganisms. Microscopy techniques provide higher magnification views of cellular structures and staining patterns for classification.
This document provides an overview of Entamoeba, including its classification, morphology, life cycle, virulence factors, transmission, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Key points include:
- Entamoeba histolytica is a pathogenic protozoan that can cause intestinal and extra-intestinal infections like amoebic dysentery and liver abscess.
- It has three morphological stages - trophozoite, precystic, and cystic stages. Trophozoites cause tissue invasion and disease.
- The infective transmissive stage is the mature quadrinucleated cyst which is ingested and excysts in the intestine.
- Virulence factors like lect
This document outlines general safety rules and procedures for working in a medical microbiology laboratory. It discusses hazards such as exposure to biological agents, chemicals, radiation, and electrical accidents. The key safety practices include wearing personal protective equipment, keeping work areas clean and uncluttered, properly storing chemicals and biological materials, and knowing emergency procedures for injuries or accidents. Following these safety guidelines is important for protecting laboratory workers from health and safety risks.
Streptococcus pneumoniae, commonly known as pneumococcus, is a Gram-positive bacterium that is a major cause of pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. It was first isolated in 1881 by George Sternberg and Louis Pasteur. There are over 90 known serotypes of S. pneumoniae. It is a facultative anaerobe that is normally found in the upper respiratory tract of humans. Virulence factors include an antiphagocytic polysaccharide capsule and pneumolysin toxin. Diagnosis involves culture and identification of the bacterium from clinical specimens. Treatment involves antibiotics like penicillin, with vaccines available to help prevent pneumococcal disease.
KOH mount preparation involves mixing specimens like skin or nails with 10-20% potassium hydroxide solution to clear tissues and cellular debris, allowing visualization of fungal hyphae and spores under a microscope. Papanicolaou stain uses acidic and basic dyes to stain cell nuclei blue and cytoplasm colors, aiding identification of candida species. India ink preparation detects encapsulated yeasts like Cryptococcus neoformans in cerebrospinal fluid by staining the background ink black and leaving the capsule clear.
This document discusses opportunistic mycoses that occur in individuals with compromised immune systems. It focuses on several common fungal causes including Aspergillus, Mucor, and Penicillium species. Aspergillosis is described in detail, outlining the different clinical manifestations depending on infection site and immune status. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination and culture of specimens. Treatment involves antifungal therapies like amphotericin B and azoles.
This document discusses Mycobacterium leprae, the bacteria that causes leprosy. It describes the cultural characteristics of M. leprae, noting that they are unable to be cultivated in other medias. It then discusses the pathogenesis and types of leprosy. There are four main types described - lepromatous, tuberculoid, dimorphic/borderline, and indeterminate. The types are distinguished based on the appearance of skin lesions and presence of bacteria. Diagnosis involves examination of skin and nerves, biopsy of skin or nerves, and acid fast staining to look for the bacteria. Treatment recommended is multidrug therapy using dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine
This document summarizes several bacterial genera - Yersinia, Pasteurella, and Francisella. It describes their general properties, species, diseases caused, morphology, culture characteristics, biochemical reactions, epidemiology, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis. Key points include Yersinia pestis causing plague, Pasteurella multocida causing septicemia, and Francisella tularensis causing tularemia.
Bacteria are classified in several ways:
1. By staining (Gram positive/negative, acid-fast), shape (cocci, bacilli), motility, environment (aerobic/anaerobic).
2. The bacterial cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, flagella/fimbriae and cytoplasm. The cell wall provides structure and protection through its peptidoglycan layer.
3. Bacteria are further classified based on nutrition sources, temperature, pH and salt tolerance ranges they thrive in. Most bacteria serve important ecological roles while some can cause disease.
This document provides information about virus structure and classification. It begins with the history of virology and defines viruses. It describes the differences between bacteria and viruses, and between DNA and RNA viruses. It outlines the characteristics, structure, replication process, and reaction to physical and chemical agents of viruses. It discusses viral morphology, classification based on shape and presence of an envelope. It also covers bacteriophage structure and important human viruses classified by genome type and associated disease.
Microorganisms are unicellular or multicellular organisms that are microscopic. They were the earliest form of life on Earth and exist in nearly every habitat. Microorganisms can be beneficial, for example in food production, or harmful, as pathogens that cause disease. While some microbes like bacteria and fungi have been used for millennia to make foods, others like Streptococcus and Salmonella can cause illnesses. Important discoveries like antibiotics and their producers such as penicillin have allowed humans to combat harmful microbial infections.
1. Subcutaneous mycoses are chronic fungal or bacterial infections of the subcutaneous tissues that can spread through the lymphatics or form sinus tracts. They are caused by organisms found in soil and are most common in tropical regions.
2. Mycetoma, also known as Madura foot, is a common subcutaneous mycosis characterized by a slowly progressive granulomatous infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues of the extremities. It is caused by fungi like Madurella mycetomatis or bacteria like Actinomyces.
3. Diagnosis involves identification of fungal or bacterial grains from infected lesions through microscopic examination of potassium hydroxide mounts, staining techniques,
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria which most commonly affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with active TB cough or sneeze. Common symptoms include cough, fever, night sweats and weight loss. Diagnosis involves chest x-ray and sputum culture. Treatment requires taking multiple antibiotic drugs daily for 6-9 months. Directly observed treatment short course chemotherapy (DOTS) involves health workers directly observing patients take their medications to ensure compliance. Tuberculosis remains a major global health issue and India has a high burden of cases.
This ppt gives you idea about pathophysiology of tuberculosis and the pharmacology of drugs used to treat this infection. And it also give deep introduction of molecular interaction of mycobacteria with body i.e.. immune response by human to this mycobacteria.
it also gives you idea about treatment regimens and strategy for TB. discussed the different types of TB and mechanism of development of resistance by mycobacteria for anti-TB drugs.
Tuberculosis is a contagious infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis that usually affects the lungs. It can spread to other parts of the body. One quarter of the world's population is infected with TB, with over 10 million active cases in 2016 resulting in 1.3 million deaths, making it a leading infectious cause of death globally. The bacteria are spread through airborne droplets when infected people cough, sneeze or speak. Granulomas form in the lungs as part of the body's immune response to the infection.
Tuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, characterized by vague constitutional symptoms and a protracted course of illness. India accounts for one third of the global tuberculosis burden, with an estimated 15 million people infected and 3-4 million children infected. Tuberculosis is most commonly transmitted via inhalation of airborne droplets expelled through coughing or sneezing, with the bacilli then multiplying in the lungs to cause a primary infection which can spread systemically through the blood or lymphatics.
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis.
TB is spread from person to person through the air. When people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air. A person needs to inhale only a few of these germs to become infected.
This document provides an overview of tuberculosis (TB), including its definition, causative agents, types, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, investigation, and treatment. TB is an infectious disease caused mainly by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis that typically affects the lungs. It can be transmitted through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. There are two main types - pulmonary TB affecting the lungs and extra-pulmonary TB affecting other organs. Risk factors include contact with infected individuals, immunosuppression, and lifestyle factors like drug/alcohol misuse. Treatment involves a two-phase drug regimen over 6-10 months with first-line antibiotics like rifampin,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Sikander ali Sumalanisikandarsikandar3
This document provides an overview of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria that causes tuberculosis (TB). It discusses the morphology, culture, acid-fast staining, and species of mycobacteria. M. tuberculosis is transmitted through respiratory droplets and causes TB, which remains a major global health threat. The pathogenesis of TB involves inhalation and interaction with macrophages, inflammatory cell recruitment, granuloma formation to contain bacteria, and potential reactivation from latent infection. Risk factors, signs and symptoms, diagnosis using tests like tuberculin skin test and sputum analysis, and multi-drug treatment approaches are summarized.
Objective :
Describe the morphology and structure of mycobacterial tuberculosis ?
What are the tests required for mycobacterial infection :
Mantoux skin test
Sputum examination using Ziehl-Neelsen staining
Sputum culture using lowenstein-jensen media
Discuss the clinical features and transmission of mycobacterial tuberculosis.
What are the pathological changes in mycobacterium tuberculosis?
How to control mycobacterial infection in the environment and vaccine available?
done by : asem shadid , college of medicine .
Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It most commonly affects the lungs. Globally in 2016, there were 10.4 million new cases of TB and 1.7 million deaths from the disease. Risk factors include a weakened immune system, HIV infection, diabetes, silicosis, malnutrition and very young or advanced age. TB spreads through airborne droplets when people with active lung TB cough, sneeze or spit. Diagnosis involves tests such as the tuberculin skin test, TB blood test, chest x-ray, and sputum smear and culture. Standard treatment is 6-9 months of multiple antibiotic drugs, usually including isoniazid and rifampin.
Tuberculosis is an infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis that primarily affects the lungs. It spreads through airborne droplets when people with active TB cough, sneeze or speak. There are two types - latent TB where the bacteria are inactive and do not cause symptoms, and active TB where the person is sick and can spread the bacteria to others. Symptoms of active TB include cough, chest pain, weight loss and fever. Treatment involves a combination of antibiotics over a long period of time to prevent transmission and cure the infection.
Tuberculosis is a communicable chronic granulomatous disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis , where the center of the granuloma is Caseous necrosis
It usually involves the lungs but may affect any organ or tissue in the body
Airborne spread of droplet nuclei
Tuberculosis... a brife description about itDrGireesha123
Tuberculosis is a potentially fatal contagious disease that usually affects the lungs. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which can spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Common symptoms include coughing, fever, fatigue, and weight loss. While TB has affected humans for millennia, it was not until the 19th century that it was proven to be contagious and the bacterium that causes it was identified. Today, TB is diagnosed through laboratory tests and treated with a combination of antibiotics over a long period of time to prevent drug resistance and relapses.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that most commonly infects the lungs. It can be treated with a combination of anti-TB drugs. TB is spread through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. While latent TB means the immune system has contained the infection, active TB means the person is sick and can spread the infection. Treatment involves a combination of first-line drugs like isoniazid, rifampin and ethambutol over a period of 6-9 months.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that most commonly infects the lungs. It can be treated with antibiotics. TB is spread through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. While latent TB means the immune system has contained the infection and the person is not infectious, active TB means the person is sick and can spread the disease. Standard TB treatment involves a combination of antibiotics like isoniazid, rifampin and ethambutol over a period of 6-9 months.
Tuberculosis is caused by various strains of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria, which most commonly affects the lungs. It can spread through the body to other organs. TB may be pulmonary (lung-based in 90% of cases) or extra-pulmonary in other parts of the body. While treatable with antibiotics now, TB was once a major global killer and remains a serious public health issue, made worse by the emergence of drug-resistant strains like MDR-TB and XDR-TB which are harder to treat.
Pulmonary tuberculosis latest guidelines and treatmentpugalrockzz1
This document provides information on pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), including:
- Causative agents, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment of drug-susceptible and drug-resistant PTB
- Clinical manifestations and spread of primary and post-primary PTB
- Interactions and management of PTB in HIV co-infected individuals
- Potential adverse drug reactions to anti-tuberculosis medications and their management
This document provides an overview of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). It defines TB as an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which primarily affects the lungs. TB is spread through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The document discusses the pathogenesis, stages, risk factors, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, medical management including drug therapy, and nursing care of patients with pulmonary TB. It also covers complications, education on respiratory hygiene and home care considerations for patients.
Classification and prophylactics of tuberculosisALAUF JALALUDEEN
Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease caused by mycobacteria that typically affects the lungs. It spreads through airborne droplets when infected people cough, sneeze or speak. Symptoms include fever, night sweats, and weight loss. While most infections are latent and asymptomatic, active disease can be fatal if left untreated. Tuberculosis is treated with a combination of antibiotics taken for at least six months.
This document provides an overview of tuberculosis (TB). It describes TB as a chronic infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria, which most commonly affects the lungs. The document outlines the etiology, transmission, types (primary and secondary), signs and symptoms, pathophysiology, complications, diagnosis, and treatments of TB. Key points include that TB remains a major global health problem, especially in developing countries, and that co-infection with HIV increases the risks of developing active TB disease. Standard TB treatment involves a multi-drug regimen over 6-9 months, while latent TB is usually treated with 9 months of isoniazid alone.
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Ag-Ab-Reactions.pdf microbiology and botanyjyothisaisri
The document discusses antigen-antibody reactions, including the specific and reversible binding between antigens and antibodies. It describes the properties of antigen-antibody reactions, such as high specificity, non-covalent interactions, and reversibility. It also discusses the concepts of affinity, avidity, and cross-reactivity. Finally, it summarizes several types of antigen-antibody reactions: precipitation, agglutination, complement fixation, and neutralization.
IR Spect.pptx stereochemistry pdf sem 4 notesjyothisaisri
Infrared spectroscopy analyzes molecular vibrations to determine chemical structure. When molecules absorb infrared light, their bonds vibrate at characteristic frequencies. Only vibrations that change the molecule's dipole moment are infrared active. There are two types of vibrations - stretching and bending. Stretching involves changes in bond lengths while bending involves changes in bond angles. Different functional groups, like alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and carboxylic acids, have distinct infrared absorption regions that identify their presence in a sample.
fermentation media.ppt life sciences pptjyothisaisri
Crude media contains a variety of naturally available nutrients that are well-suited for fermentation processes. It provides high yields while containing undefined ingredients like inorganic salts, carbon sources, vitamins, and minerals. Common carbon sources in crude media include molasses, malt extract, sulfite waste liquor, whey, and corn steep liquor which are inexpensive byproducts of other industries and contain carbohydrates, proteins, and growth factors.
This document discusses various types of chromosomal aberrations:
1. Variations in chromosome number including euploidy (changes in whole sets), aneuploidy (changes in single chromosomes), and polyploidy (having multiple sets).
2. Variations in chromosome structure including deletions, duplications, translocations that occur within and between chromosomes. Specific examples of numerical variations like triploidy, tetraploidy, and structural aberrations like tandem duplications are provided.
Organometallic Compounds_Notes.pdf sem 4jyothisaisri
Organometallic compounds contain direct bonds between carbon atoms in organic groups and metal atoms. They can be classified based on bond type as ionic, covalent, or pi-bonded. Metal carbonyls contain carbon monoxide ligands bonded to a metal. The 18-electron rule states that metal complexes are most stable when the metal has 18 electrons in its valence shell through contributions from its own electrons and electrons donated by ligands. Metal carbonyls can be analyzed using this rule by counting electrons donated by each ligand type to the metal.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
2. • Tuberculosis (TB) is a dangerous and highly contagious bacterial disease
caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs, but
if left untreated, it might spread to different parts of the body.
• There are two different types of tuberculosis:
Pulmonary Tuberculosis- infection affecting the lungs.
Extra pulmonary Tuberculosis- It is usually seen in immunocompromised
patients. There are several types:
• Tuberculosis Meningitis
• Osteal Tuberculosis
• Lymph Node Disease
• Renal Tuberculosis
• Adrenal Tuberculosis
3. Causes of TB
• Tuberculosis is a contagious airborne disease, which can be acquired
from close contact with an infected person.
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the leading causes of this
dreadful infectious disease. It is a pathogenic bacterial species and
mainly comprises four other types of TB-causing bacteria, namely:
– Mycobacterium bovis,
– Mycobacterium canettii,
– Mycobacterium microti,
– Mycobacterium africanum.
4. Pathogenesis
• TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the alveolar air
sacs of the lungs, where they invade and replicate within
endosomes of alveolar macrophages.
• Macrophages identify the bacterium as foreign and attempt to
eliminate it by phagocytosis.
• During this process, the bacterium is enveloped by the macrophage
and stored temporarily in a membrane-bound vesicle called a
phagosome.
• The phagosome then combines with a lysosome to create a
phagolysosome.
5. • In the phagolysosome, the cell attempts to use reactive oxygen
species and acid to kill the bacterium. However, M. tuberculosis has
a thick, waxy mycolic acid capsule that protects it from these toxic
substances.
• M. tuberculosis is able to reproduce inside the macrophage and will
eventually kill the immune cell.
• Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory
diseases. Macrophages, epithelioid cells, T lymphocytes, B
lymphocytes, and fibroblasts aggregate to form granulomas, with
lymphocytes surrounding the infected macrophages.
6. • When other macrophages attack the infected macrophage, they fuse
together to form a giant multinucleated cell in the alveolar lumen. The
granuloma may prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria and provide
a local environment for interaction of cells of the immune system.
• The bacteria use the granulomas to avoid destruction by the host's
immune system. Macrophages and dendritic cells in the granulomas are
unable to present antigen to lymphocytes; thus the immune response is
suppressed.
• Bacteria inside the granuloma can become dormant, resulting in latent
infection. Another feature of the granulomas is the development of
abnormal cell death (necrosis) in the center of tubercles. To the naked
eye, this has the texture of soft, white cheese and is termed caseous
necrosis.
7.
8. Symptoms of Tuberculosis
TB bacteria or Mycobacterium tuberculosis multiply once it gets into the
lungs cause severe symptoms such as:
• Coughing up blood and mucus from deep inside the lungs
• A bad cough that lasts three weeks or longer
• Weakness or fatigue
• Sweating at night
• Pain in the chest
• Weight loss
• No appetite
• Chills and Fever
9. Diagnosis
• Blood Test: In this procedure, Blood samples are collected and
tested in the laboratories for the presence or absence of TB germs
in the blood cells. The tuberculosis (TB) blood test, also called an
Interferon Gamma Release Assay or IGRA, is a way to find out if
you have TB germs in your body.
• Skin Test: It is the most common type of test. In this procedure, a
small sample of Tuberculin – a purified protein is injected under
the patient’s skin. If the skin around the site of the injection gets
swollen more than five millimetres, then it is a clear indication of
TB infection.
10. Imaging tests
• If you've had a positive skin test, your doctor is likely to order a
chest X-ray or a CT scan. This might show white spots in your lungs
where your immune system has walled off TB bacteria, or it might
reveal changes in your lungs caused by active tuberculosis.
Sputum tests:
• If the chest X-ray shows signs of tuberculosis, samples of the
sputum (the mucus that comes up when you cough) are collected.
The samples are tested for TB bacteria.
• Sputum samples can also be used to test for drug-resistant strains
of TB. This helps your doctor choose the medications that are most
likely to work. Getting results of these tests can take four to eight
weeks.
• TB bacteria cultured in Egg-enriched media with glycerol and
asparagine Lowenstein- Jensen medium or media supplemented
with bovine albumin Middlebrook medium
11.
12. Prevention and Control
BCG vaccination
• The BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guérin) is a live vaccine against
tuberculosis. The vaccine is prepared from a strain of the weakened
bovine tuberculosis bacillus, Mycobacterium bovis.
• The BCG is currently the only licensed vaccine against TB, and has
been in use since 1921. It is one of the most widely used vaccines
worldwide.
• 80% effective in preventing TB for 15 years and more effective
against complex forms of TB in children.
A healthy immune system
• Having a healthy immune system is the best form of defence
against TB: 60% of adults with a healthy immune system can
completely kill TB bacteria.
13. Early diagnosis
• Early diagnosis and treatment is the most effective way to prevent
the spread of tuberculosis.
• A person with infectious tuberculosis can infect up to 10–15 other
people per year. But once diagnosed with TB, and started on
treatment, the majority of patients are no longer infectious after
just two weeks of taking the medication.
Managing your environment
As TB is an airborne infection, TB bacteria are released into the air
when someone with infectious TB coughs or sneezes. The risk of
infection can be reduced by using a few simple precautions:
• good ventilation: as TB can remain suspended in the air for several
hours with no ventilation
• natural light: UV light kills off TB bacteria
• good hygiene: covering the mouth and nose when coughing or
sneezing reduces the spread of TB bacteria.
14. Treatment of Tuberculosis
• Drug treatment is one of the most efficient ways to treat this
infectious disease. For patients with Latent TB infections, doctors
generally prescribe an antibiotic called isoniazid, Rifampin for
preventing the latent infection from becoming active.
• Active TB Diseases will be deadly if left untreated. The procedure
involved is taking a combination of ethambutol, INH, Priftin and
Pyrazinamide for a term of three months, followed by a mix of INH
and pyrazinamide for 12 months.
• Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinic acid hydrazide (INH)
