Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that mainly affects the lungs. It spreads through air droplets when people with active TB cough, sneeze or speak. Symptoms include coughing, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. While TB mainly affects the lungs, it can spread to other organs. There is no cure for latent TB, but active TB can be cured by taking multiple antibiotics for 6-9 months.
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India has the largest burden of tuberculosis. The disease is gradually extending its storm into the paediatric age group, the manifest in which is severe and tortous. So a preventive approach is always better than a curative approach
This presentation discusses COVID-19. It covers etiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, clinical management and treatment of COVID-19. It also discusses the effects of COVID-19 on pregnancy,how it manifests and how it is diagnosed and how it is managed. Hope this will help you.
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India has the largest burden of tuberculosis. The disease is gradually extending its storm into the paediatric age group, the manifest in which is severe and tortous. So a preventive approach is always better than a curative approach
This presentation discusses COVID-19. It covers etiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, clinical management and treatment of COVID-19. It also discusses the effects of COVID-19 on pregnancy,how it manifests and how it is diagnosed and how it is managed. Hope this will help you.
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25 Important Cases In Ear Nose Throat | SurgicoMed.comMukhdoom BaharAli
Case 1: A 10 year old child was having a right mucopurulent otorrhea for the last 4 years. A
week ago he became dizzy with a whirling sensation, nausea, vomiting and nystagmus to the
opposite side; his deafness became complete and his temperature was normal. Three days later
he became feverish, irritable and continuously crying apparently from severe headache. Also he
had some neck retraction. The child was not managed properly and died by the end of the week.
Any deviation in the normal nasal septum is called DNS (Deviated Nasal Septum).
Deviated Nasal Septum may be caused by mechanical trauma and may be
associated with some developmental defects.
“Housing” in the modern concept includes not only the “physical structure” for
providing protection and shelter but also includes the immediate surrounding and
related community services and facilities. Residence is constructed for family life
where a person gets physical and mental peace. World health organization (WHO)
refers the term “Residential environment” where family can develop and flourish
physically, mentally and socially and it includes all necessary services, facilities
and equipment and devices needed for physical and mental health and social
well-being.
Disease Control is the term used to describe operation or activities with the aims;
1.
2.
3.
4.
To reduce incidences of diseases.
To reduce duration of diseases.
To reduce chances of transmission of diseases from one person to another.
To reduce negative effects of disease which include both the physical &
psychological complications.
5. To reduce financial burden to the community in case of any disability.
“Statistics is a science of systemic collection, classification, tabulation, presentation, analysis
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It is the science of facts and figures.
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Community Medicine is the new branch of medicine recently added with a concept to provide
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“Community Medicine is a system of delivery of comprehensive health care to the people by a
health team in order to improve the health of community.” (WHO Definition)
Typhoid fever is the bacterial disease caused by the ingestion of food or water
contaminated with bacterium, Salmonella typhi. The typhoid fever is also called
typhoid. Typhoid fever is diagnosed by detection of Salmonella typhi in the stool
sample. Typhoid responds to anti-biotic treatment. Approximately (3-5) % of the
people becomes carrier after acute illness. Typhoid fever is gastric fever,
abdominal typhus, infantile remittent fever, slow fever, nervous fever and
pathogenic fever.
Hydronephrosis is the distension of the renal calyces and pelvis due to accumulation of the
urine as a result of the obstruction to the outflow of the urine mostly distal to renal pelvis.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
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1. Tuberculosis (TB)
Tuberculosis, MTB or TB, which was formerly known as “Consumption”, “Phthisis
pulmonalis”, is an infectious bacterial disease that is caused by mycobacteria
mainly by “Mycobacterium tuberculosis”. Lungs are the main site of infection in
the tuberculosis, but other systems of the body are also infected. Tuberculosis
spread through air droplets from a person who has active disease through
respiratory system.
Introduction & Background
Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease that is caused by mycobacteria
mainly by “Mycobacterium tuberculosis”. Tuberculosis spreads through air
droplets formed during coughing, sneezing. The typical symptoms of the
tuberculosis include chronic coughing, fever, bloody sputum, weight loss etc.
Tuberculosis mainly affects lungs but other organs of the body are also affected.
When in addition to lungs other organs of the body are infected then the patient
shows a variety of symptoms in addition to the typical symptoms of tuberculosis
i.e., fever, chronic cough, weight loss, bloody sputum.
2. It is said that about 30 % of world’s population is affected by tuberculosis. In
2007, there were 13 million reported cases of chronic tuberculosis worldwide and
in 2010; 8.8 million new cases were registered with 1.5 million deaths most
frequently in developing countries.
The rate of incidence of tuberculosis varies in different countries. The incidence
rate of tuberculosis is almost 75-80 % in Asia and Africa while in United States of
America (USA) it is quite less i.e., 5-10%. Most people in developing countries
3. develop tuberculosis because of poor hygienic conditions and weak immune
system.
Tuberculosis is high risk disease for the people, who are living in or traveling to
the following areas,
India
China
Mexico
Southeast Asia
What is Tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease that is caused by Mycobacteria, acid
fast bacilli mainly by “Mycobacterium tuberculosis”. Tuberculosis mainly spreads
through air droplets formed during coughing, sneezing.
4. The typical symptoms of the tuberculosis include chronic coughing, fever, night
sweats, bloody sputum, weight loss and loss of appetite etc. Tuberculosis mainly
affects lungs but other organs of the body are also affected. When in addition to
lungs other organs of the body are infected then the patient shows widespread of
symptoms in addition to the typical symptoms of tuberculosis i.e., fever, chronic
cough, weight loss, bloody sputum.
Sign & Symptoms of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis can affect any organ of the body but lungs are main site of infection
and this type of tuberculosis is known as pulmonary tuberculosis. There may be
extrapulmonary tuberculosis when mycobacteria affect other organs of the body
except lungs. Tuberculosis may be of active or latent type. In latent tuberculosis,
the patient has bacterial infection but the mycobacteria are in an inactive state
and do not cause typical symptoms of the tuberculosis. The latent tuberculosis,
also known as inactive tuberculosis, is not contagious like active tuberculosis. The
latent infection can transform into active disease, therefore treatment of the
latent form of infection is also necessary. Active tuberculosis starts with fever and
chronic cough and is easily transmitted from one person to other through
respiratory droplets.
5. The general signs and symptoms of tuberculosis are followings,
Fever
Chronic Cough
Blood tinged sputum
Weight loss
Night sweat
Chills
Malaise
Loss of appetite
Finger clubbing
Chest pain
Difficult breathing
The tuberculosis may be pulmonary or extrapulmonary depending upon the site
of infection.
6. 1. In 90 % of cases, the site of infection is lungs and this condition is known as
Pulmonary tuberculosis. This type tuberculosis manifests itself with chest pain
and coughing with sputum. In 25 % of cases of pulmonary tuberculosis, the
patients remain asymptomatic i.e., do not show the symptoms. Some of the
patients cough up blood in small amount, and in rare cases there may be
erosion of pulmonary artery that leads to massive bleeding. There may
immense scarring of upper lobe of lungs.
7. 2. In 15-20 % cases of active disease, the infection may spread outside the lungs.
Sites of extrapulmonary tuberculosis are following,
Pleura of lungs
Central nervous system (CNS)
Genital system
Bones and Joints (Osseous tuberculosis)
Lymphatic system (Scrofula of neck)
Skin
Most serious form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis is miliary tuberculosis that is
widespread form of infection.
8. When to See Your Doctor
The patient must visit his family physician when there is fever, persistent
coughing, unexplained weight loss, night sweats, and loss of appetite. The doctor
might advise to undergo laboratory investigations or chest X-rays for further
diagnosis. Chronic coughing, fever and weight loss are main symptoms for
tuberculosis because other symptoms may result from other medical problems.
If you are suspicion of tuberculosis then you must immediately consult your
family physician but before appointment with a doctor you must prepare some
questions in your mind such as,
What are the main symptoms and when did these started?
Were you immunized in the childhood?
Did you have tuberculosis in past?
If you had tuberculosis then did you take medicine against mycobacteria?
Do you have AIDS or HIV?
Does anyone in your family have active form of tuberculosis?
What do you do?
Do you smoke?
Do you take alcohol?
These are the questions that are usually asked by the doctor and these must be
answered properly because these things are closely link to the manifestation and
development of the disease.
How Tuberculosis is diagnosed
There are separate tests and laboratory investigations for active and latent types
of infections. Chest X-ray and sputum culture are the initial evaluation tests
performed in active disease. Interferon γ release assay (IGRA) and skin tuberculin
test is of little significance in an active disease. Define diagnosis is made by
observing mycobacterium tuberculosis in the sample (culture) or biopsy of lungs.
Almost 6 weeks are required for the growth of the organism therefore it is a time
9. requiring process. For rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis, nucleic acid amplification
test (PCR) and adenosine deaminase tests are performed.
For diagnosis of latent form of infection, Mantoux Tuberculin Skin test is
performed. Tuberculin test is falsely negative in patients of Hodgkin’s lymphoma,
sarcoidosis and malnutrition. Interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) is performed
in patients who are positive for Mantoux tuberculin skin test.
Risk Factors
A healthy immune system is the main factor in the fight against tuberculosis.
Overcrowding and malnutrition are closely linked risk factors for catching
tuberculosis. There are many other risk factors for the development of the
tuberculosis, such as;
Diabetes
AIDS
HIV
Malnutrition
End stage renal disease
Overcrowding
Chronic lung disease
Silicosis
Smoking
Drinking
10. Crohn’s disease
Psoriasis
Advancing age
Certain type of cancer
Cancer chemotherapy
Certain drugs such as corticosteroids, infliximab etc.
Complications
Tuberculosis is life threatening infectious disease that may become fatal if not
treated properly. The bacteria may spread to other parts of the body through
blood stream. There may following complications of organs of the body,
1. There may spinal pain and joint destruction when tuberculosis affects
bones.
2. When tuberculosis affects brain, then it may cause meningitis and
sometimes it may also lead to swelling of the meninges.
3. Tuberculosis may also lead to cardiac temponade if it affects the tissues
surrounding the heart. This leads to fluid accumulation that interferes with
contractile ability.
4. Functioning of the liver as well as of kidney is impaired when these organs
are affected by the tuberculosis.
Treatment
Antibiotics are used against mycobacteria. Treatment of tuberculosis is much
difficult because of unusual structure of cell wall of mycobacteria that prevents
the entry of the drugs. Medications against tuberculosis are available but it takes
much longer time for treatment than other bacterial infections. 6-9 months
period of antibiotics medication is required for complete recovery from
tuberculosis and in case multi drug resistant strains of mycobacteria, the
treatment period may be 12 months. The time period of treatment and choices
of drug depends upon the age, health condition, drug resistance and, active and
latent form of tuberculosis.
11. Followings are most common drugs used for the treatment of tuberculosis,
1. Isoniazid
2. Rifampin
3. Ethambutol
4. Pyrazinamide
In case of latent type of infection, only one type of drug is usually used but in
active form of disease, combination of drugs is used for 6-9 months.
12. Side effects are also common due to the use of anti-mycobacterial drugs.
Following are important side effects of drugs used in treatment of tuberculosis,
Nausea
Vomiting
Jaundice
Optic neuropathy
Fever
Dark colored urine
Abdominal pain
Burning and tingling sensations of fingers
Preventions
Getting immunization against tuberculosis properly.
Maintaining personal hygiene.
Having an active and healthy lifestyle.
If the patient has only latent form of infection, then it is advised to take
medications properly to reduce the risk of having active form of disease. Only
active form of tuberculosis is contagious that can be transmitted from one
person to other person. So only proper medication is required in latent
disease.
13. Unfortunately if you got tuberculosis, protect your family from
contamination.
If you have tuberculosis, do not go outside the house and stay inside a
specified room during first few weeks of treatment because there is greater
risk of contamination.
Use handkerchief during laughing, sneezing and coughing.
14. There should be proper ventilation of the room in which patient is staying
because tuberculosis is easily transmitted in closely spaced and congested
rooms.
Cover your face with a surgical mask to prevent the spread of respiratory
droplets.
Lifestyle modifications & Home Remedies
There is no complete home remedy for tuberculosis but home remedies are used
to control the symptoms, boost up the immune system and combat the side
effects of the drugs. Home remedies alone are not sufficient for the treatment of
tuberculosis.
Herbs are quite useful in the home remedies. Green tea is most commonly
used as home remedy in tuberculosis because green tea has antioxidant
properties that strengthen the immune system.
Eucalyptus and spearmint may also provide some relief from symptoms.
Garlic is also used as a herb because of its antibacterial properties and it
also strengthens the immune system.
Eat vitamin B and iron rich foods such as green vegetables and whole
grains.
Use antioxidant rich foods such as blueberries, tomatoes etc.
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