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DEBREBIRHAN UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
Department of psychology
Individual Assignment I
Name of student ID No
Tseganesh Ashamo DBU /2820/13
Submitted to instructor: Dr. Tedla Kutaye
August, 2013/21
Debrebirhan, Ethiopia.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My first and foremost gratitude and acknowledgement goes to my instructor Dr. Tedla Kutaye
who gave me this opportunity to do this assignment I hope I got a lot of knowledge and
information from entire work

3. II
List of figures
Figure 1 approaches to psychology from nature to nurture ..........................................................................4

4. III
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................................................I
List of figures.................................................................................................................................................II
1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Behavioral development ...............................................................................................................1
1.2. Physical development ........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Social development.............................................................................................................................2
1.3 Emotional development ......................................................................................................................2
1.4. Cognitive development ......................................................................................................................2
2. Nativism (Extreme Nature Position).....................................................................................................2
1.2. Empiricism (Extreme Nurture Position) ............................................................................................3
2.2. Behavioral Genetic.............................................................................................................................4
2.3 Implications.........................................................................................................................................4
2.4 Polygenic Inheritance..........................................................................................................................5
2.5 The Nature of Nurture.........................................................................................................................5
2.6 Interaction Effects...............................................................................................................................6
3. Stress.....................................................................................................................................................6
3.1 Causes of Stress ..................................................................................................................................6
3.2. Stress factors broadly fall into four types or categories:....................................................................7
3.3 TYPES OF STRESS AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES..........................................................8
3.4. Here are some ways to manage emotional stress.............................................................................10
3.5. Further more Stress Management ....................................................................................................11
Tip 1: Identify the sources of stress in your life......................................................................................11
Tip 2: Practice the 4 A’s of stress management......................................................................................11
Tip 3: Get moving...................................................................................................................................14
Tip 4: Connect to others..........................................................................................................................14
Tip 5: Make time for fun and relaxation.................................................................................................15
4. Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills .................................................................................................15
4.1 What are Interpersonal and interpersonal Skills?..............................................................................15
4.2. Intra-personal (social) skills.............................................................................................................17
5. Developmental Disorders....................................................................................................................19

5. IV
5.1 Developmental disorder causes.........................................................................................................20
5.2. Developmental disorder types..........................................................................................................20
5.3. Developmental disorder treatment...................................................................................................20
5.4. Developmental Delay: .....................................................................................................................21
6. Personality...........................................................................................................................................21
6.1. Openness.....................................................................................................................................22
6.2 Conscientiousness.............................................................................................................................22
6.3 Extraversion......................................................................................................................................22
6.4. Agreeableness ..................................................................................................................................22
Summery.....................................................................................................................................................23
Reference ....................................................................................................................................................24

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1. Introduction
1.1. Behavioral development
Behavioral Development applies a behavior analytic approach to the field of human development
and behavior change across the lifespan, by examining both the acquisition of basic skills and the
development of more complex behaviors.
Behavioral Development more elaborated in cognitive and emotional development, skill
acquisition, atypical behavior development/reduction, socialization, education, and language
development, among other topics. It looks at the role of biological and environmental variables
that affect behavior development, with a primary interest in the role of reinforcement and
environmental contingencies that influence behavior change.
Behavioral Development has three goals:
To understand human development from a behavior-analytic perspective
To reach out to developmental specialists with the innovations that behavior-analytic approaches
have provided
To publish behavior-analytic interventions that measure and promote development and change,
specifically educational and clinical interventions that stimulate research in evidence-based
practices.
Behavioral Development has an inter- and multi-disciplinary nature including areas of
sociobiology, verbal behavior, and behavioral methodology. It is especially relevant to behavior
analysts who study learning and developmental processes through translational research and
clinical application.
1.2. Physical development
In early adolescence, the body undergoes more developmental change than at any other time,
apart from birth to two years old. The rate of growth is rapid and uneven, with a different pace
and rate of change for each individual. Physical changes include increases in height, weight, and
internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems.
Puberty occurs in early adolescence, triggered by the release of hormones which lead to the
development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (eg
breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). The increased hormone production affects
skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes. Physical changes are visible to all and
highlight the range and pace of change. This sometimes leads to adolescents feeling more or less

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mature than others. Physical development growth spurts occur about two years earlier in girls
than boys.
1.3 Social development
Adolescent social development is often described as the process of establishing a sense of
identity and establishing a role and purpose. It is an outwards sense of oneself. Body image is a
key factor in developing a sense of self and identity, especially for girls, and the family and
increasingly peers play an important role assisting and supporting the adolescent to achieve adult
roles. Risk-taking is a natural part of the adolescent journey. Social development and emotional
development are closely intertwined as young people search for a sense of self and personal
identity.
1.3 Emotional development
The way a person thinks and feels about themselves and others, their inward thoughts, is key to
their emotional development. Developing and demonstrating individual emotional assets such as
resilience, self-esteem and coping skills is heightened during adolescence because of the rapid
changes being experienced. Schools are important sites for social and emotional learning and
have developed policies and programs around student wellness, often with a focus on a
strengths-based approach.
1.4. Cognitive development
Cognition is the process involving thought, rationale and perception. The physical changes of the
brain that occur during adolescence follow typical patterns of cognitive development. They are
characterized by the development of higher-level cognitive functioning that aligns with the
changes in brain structure and function, particularly in the prefrontal cortex region.
The structural and functional brain changes affect the opportunity for increased memory and
processing. They may also contribute to vulnerability, such as risk taking and increased
sensitivity to mental illness. In recent years data from developmental neuroimaging has enabled
greater understanding of the changes that occur in the human brain during adolescence. This data
points towards a second window of opportunity in brain development. Adolescence is a sensitive
brain period that is a time when brain plasticity is heightened. During this time, there is an
opportunity for learning and cognitive growth as the brain adapts in structure and function in
response to experiences.
2. Nativism (Extreme Nature Position)
It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined by
genetic inheritance. Color of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain
diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit.

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These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological characteristics such as
behavioral tendencies, personality attributes, and mental abilities are also ―wired in‖ before we
are even born. Those who adopt an extreme hereditary position are known as nativists. Their
basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of
evolution and those individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic code.
In general, the earlier a particular ability appears, the more likely it is to be under the influence of
genetic factors. Estimates of genetic influence are called heritability. Examples of an extreme
nature positions in psychology include Chomsky (1965), who proposed language is gained
through the use of an innate language acquisition device. Another example of nature is Freud's
theory of aggression as being an innate drive (called Thanatos).
Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are
regarded as the product of maturation. That is to say, we all have an inner ―biological clock‖
which switches on (or off) types of behavior in a pre-programmed way. The classic example of
the way this affects our physical development are the bodily changes that occur in early
adolescence at puberty. However, nativists also argue that maturation governs the emergence of
attachment in infancy, language acquisition and even cognitive development as a whole.
1.2. Empiricism (Extreme Nurture Position)
At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists – also known as empiricists (not to be
confused with the other empirical / scientific approach).
Their basic assumption is that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that
this is gradually ―filled‖ as a result of experience (e.g., Behaviorism).
From this point of view, psychological characteristics and behavioral differences that emerge
through infancy and childhood are the results of learning. It is how you are brought up (nurture)
that governs the psychologically significant aspects of child development and the concept of
maturation applies only to the biological.
For example, Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is learned from the
environment through observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous Bobo doll
experiment. Believed that language is learnt from other people via behavior shaping techniques.
Freud (1905) stated that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives,
shaping our personality. He thought that parenting is of primary importance to a child's
development, and the family as the most important feature of nurture was a common theme
throughout twentieth-century psychology (which was dominated by environmentalists theories).

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Figure 1 approaches to psychology from nature to nurture
2.2. Behavioral Genetic
Researchers in the field of behavioral genetics study variation in behavior as it is affected by
genes, which are the units of heredity passed down from parents to offspring.
―We now know that DNA differences are the major systematic source of psychological
differences between us. Environmental effects are important but what we have learned in recent
years is that they are mostly random – unsystematic and unstable – which means that we cannot
do much about them.‖ Plomin (2018, xii) Behavioral genetics has enabled psychology to
quantify the relative contribution of nature and nurture with regard to specific psychological
traits. One way to do this is to study relatives who share the same genes (nature) but a different
environment (nurture). Adoption acts as a natural experiment which allows researchers to do
this.
Empirical studies have consistently shown that adoptive children show greater resemblance to
their biological parents, rather than their adoptive, or environmental parents. Another way of
studying heredity is by comparing the behavior of twins, who can either be identical (sharing the
same genes) or non-identical (sharing 50% of genes). Like adoption studies, twin studies support
the first rule of behavior genetics; that psychological traits are extremely heritable, about 50% on
average. The Twins in Early Development Study (TEDS) revealed correlations between twins on
a range of behavioral traits, such as personality (empathy and hyperactivity) and components of
reading such as phonetics.
2.3 Implications
Jenson (1969) found that the average I.Q. scores of black Americans were significantly lower
than whites he went on to argue that genetic factors were mainly responsible – even going so far
as to suggest that intelligence is 80% inherited. The storm of controversy that developed around
Jenson’s claims was not mainly due to logical and empirical weaknesses in his argument. It was

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more to do with the social and political implications that are often drawn from research that
claims to demonstrate natural inequalities between social groups. For many environmentalists,
there is a barely disguised right-wing agenda behind the work of the behavioral geneticists. In
their view, part of the difference in the I.Q. scores of different ethnic groups is due to inbuilt
biases in the methods of testing.
More fundamentally, they believe that differences in intellectual ability are a product of social
inequalities in access to material resources and opportunities. To put it simply children brought
up in the ghetto tend to score lower on tests because they are denied the same life chances as
more privileged members of society. Now we can see why the nature-nurture debate has become
such a hotly contested issue. What begins as an attempt to understand the causes of behavioral
differences often develops into a politically motivated dispute about distributive justice and
power in society.
What’s more, this doesn’t only apply to the debate over I.Q. It is equally relevant to the
psychology of sex and gender, where the question of how much of the (alleged) differences in
male and female behavior is due to biology and how much to culture is just as controversial.
2.4 Polygenic Inheritance
Rather than the presence or absence of single genes being the determining factor that accounts
for psychological traits, behavioral genetics has demonstrated that multiple genes – often
thousands, collectively contribute to specific behaviors. Thus, psychological traits follow a
polygenic mode of inheritance (as opposed to being determined by a single gene). Depression is
a good example of a polygenic trait, which is thought to be influenced by around 1000 genes
(Plomin, 2018).
This means a person with a lower number of these genes (under 500) would have a lower risk of
experiencing depression than someone with a higher number.
2.5 The Nature of Nurture
Nurture assumes that correlations between environmental factors and psychological outcomes
are caused environmentally. For example, how much parents read with their children and how
well children learn to read appear to be related. Other examples include environmental stress and
its effect on depression. However, behavioral genetics argues that what look like environmental
effects are to a large extent really a reflection of genetic differences). People select, modify and
create environments correlated with their genetic disposition. This means that what sometimes
appears to be an environmental influence (nurture) is a genetic influence (nature).

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So, children that are genetically predisposed to be competent readers, will be happy to listen to
their parents read them stories, and be more likely to encourage this interaction.
2.6 Interaction Effects
However, in recent years there has been a growing realization that the question of ―how much‖
behavior is due to heredity and ―how much‖ to the environment may itself be the wrong
question. Take intelligence as an example. Like almost all types of human behavior, it is a
complex, many-sided phenomenon which reveals itself (or not!) in a great variety of ways.
The ―how much‖ question assumes that psychological traits can all be expressed numerically and
that the issue can be resolved in a quantitative manner. Heritability statistics revealed by
behavioral genetic studies have been criticized as meaningless, mainly because biologists have
established that genes cannot influence development independently of environmental factors;
genetic and nongenetic factors always cooperate to build traits. The reality is that nature and
culture interact in a host of qualitatively different ways (Gottlieb, 2007; Johnston & Edwards,
2002).
Instead of defending extreme nativist or nurtures views, most psychological researchers are now
interested in investigating how nature and nurture interact. For example, in psychopathology,
this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are
required for a mental disorder to develop. For example, epigenetics state that environmental
influences affect the expression of genes.
3. Stress
Stress is actually a normal part of life. At times, it serves a useful purpose. Stress can motivate
you to get that promotion at work, or run the last mile of a marathon. But if you don't get a
handle on your stress and it becomes long-term, it can seriously interfere with your job, family
life, and health. More than half of Americans say they fight with friends and loved ones because
of stress, and more than 70% say they experience real physical and emotional symptoms from it.
It is a normal human reaction that happens to everyone. In fact, the human body is designed to
experience stress and react to it. When you experience changes or challenges (stressors), your
body produces physical and mental responses. That’s stress. Stress responses help your body
adjust to new situations. Stress can be positive, keeping us alert, motivated and ready to avoid
danger. For example, if you have an important test coming up, a stress response might help your
body work harder and stay awake longer. But stress becomes a problem when stressors continue
without relief or periods of relaxation.
3.1 Causes of Stress
Life stresses can have a big impact. Examples of life stresses are:

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 The death of a loved one
 Divorce
 Loss of a job
 Increase in financial obligations
 Getting married
 Moving to a new home
 Chronic illness or injury
 Emotional problems (depression, anxiety, anger, grief, guilt, low self-esteem)
 Taking care of an elderly or sick family member
 Traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, theft, rape, or violence against you or a loved one
3.2. Stress factors broadly fall into four types or categories:
Physical stress, psychological stress, psychosocial stress, and psych spiritual stress.
Physical stress: trauma (injury, infection, surgery), intense physical labor/over-exertion,
environmental pollution (pesticides, herbicides, toxins, heavy metals, inadequate light, radiation,
noise, electromagnetic fields), illness (viral, bacterial, or fungal agents), fatigue, inadequate
oxygen supply, hypoglycemia I(low blood sugar), hormonal and/or biochemical imbalances,
dietary stress (nutritional deficiencies, food allergies and sensitivities, unhealthy eating habits),
dehydration, substance abuse, dental challenges, and musculoskeletal misalignments/imbalances.
Psychological stress: emotional stress (resentments, fears, frustration, sadness, anger,
grief/bereavement), cognitive stres (information overload, accelerated sense of time, worry, guilt,
shame, jealousy, resistance, attachments, self-criticism, self-loathing, unworkable perfectionism,
anxiety, panic attacks, not feeling like yourself, not feeling like things are real, and a sense of
being out of control/not being in control), and perceptual stress (beliefs, roles, stories, attitudes,
world view).
Psychosocial stress: relationship/marriage difficulties (partner, siblings, children, family,
employer, co-workers, employer), lack of social support, lack of resources for adequate survival,
loss of employment/investments/savings, loss of loved ones, bankruptcy, home foreclosure, and
isolation.
Psycho-spiritual stress: A crisis of values, meaning, and purpose; joyless striving (instead of
productive, satisfying, meaningful and fulfilling work; and a misalignment withn one’s core
spiritual beliefs.

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Overall, improperly or ineffectively managed stress usually takes a toll on the body. When
stress-related feelings, moods, emotions are pushed into the body, the soma, this is usually
termed psychosomatic or psychogenic illness, including headaches, heart palpitations,
physical/cognitive/emotional pain and suffering, constricted throat and shallow, constricted
breathing, clammy palms, fatigue, nausea, anxiety, allergies, asthma, autoimmune syndromes
related to an ineffective functioning of the immune system, hypertension (high blood pressure),
and gastrointestinal disturbances such as diarrhea, upset stomach, duodenal ulcers and
esophageal reflux syndrome.
Prolonged stress can result in suppressed immune function, increased susceptibility to infectious
and immune-related diseases and cancer. Emotional stress can also result in hormonal
imbalances (adrenal, pituitary, thyroid, etcetera) that further interfere with healthy immune
functioning.
Cognitive: Anxious thoughts, fearful anticipation, poor concentration, difficulty with memory.
Emotional: Feelings of tension, irritability, restlessness, worries, inability to relax, depression.
Behavioral: Avoidance of tasks; sleep problems; difficulty in completing work assignments;
fidgeting; tremors; strained face; clenching fists; crying; changes in drinking, eating, or smoking
behaviors.
Physiological: Stiff or tense muscles, grinding teeth, sweating, tension headaches, faint feelings,
choking feeling, difficulty in swallowing, stomachache, nausea, vomiting, loosening of bowels,
constipation, frequency and urgency of urination, loss of interest in sex, tiredness, shakiness or
tremors, weight loss or gain, awareness of heart beat.
Social: Some people in stressful times tend to seek out others to be with. Other people withdraw
under stress. Also, the quality of relationships can change when a person is under stress.
3.3 TYPES OF STRESS AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Acute Stress
Acute stress is the type of stress that throws you off-balance momentarily. This is the type of
stress that comes on quickly and often unexpectedly and doesn’t last too long, but requires a
response and shakes you up a bit, like an argument with someone in your life, or an exam for
which you don’t feel adequately prepared.
Your body's stress response is triggered with acute stress, but you can reverse it with quick
relaxation techniques, and then go back to your day feeling less stressed again. These stress
relievers can help you to relax and more quickly recover from acute stress.
Breathing exercises: Great for acute stress because they work quickly.

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Cognitive reframing: Learn to change the way you look at the situation to manage your
stress levels.
Mini-meditation: A quick, 5-minute meditation technique can help you to calm down in
the moment.
Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR): Like breathing exercises, PMR will give you a
moment to regroup and relax.
Chronic Stress
Chronic stress is the type of stress that tends to occur on a regular basis. This type of stress may
leave you feeling drained, and can lead to burnout if it’s not effectively managed. This is because
when the stress response is chronically triggered and the body is not brought back to a relaxed
state before the next wave of stress hits, the body can stay triggered indefinitely.
Chronic stress can lead to a host of health issues, including cardiovascular disease,
gastrointestinal issues, anxiety, depression, and a variety of other conditions. This is why it is
important to effectively manage chronic stress.
Managing this type of stress often requires a combination approach, with some short-term stress
relievers (like those for acute stress), and some long-term stress relief habits that relieve overall
stress. (Different emotion-focused coping techniques and solution-focused coping techniques are
important as well.)
The following long-term habits can help you to better manage general stress that you may feel
from the chronic stressors in your life.
 Cultivate supportive relationships: Having a solid support system is a crucial coping
mechanism.
 Exercise regularly: Exercise and stress management are closely linked for several reasons.
 Listen to music: Music can act as a wonderful, stress-reducing backdrop to everyday tasks.
 Maintain a healthy diet: Fueling your body well can help with overall stress levels because
your entire system will function better.
 Meditate regularly: While quick meditations are great for dealing with acute stress, a
regular meditation practice will help build your overall resilience to stress.

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Emotional Stress
The pain of emotional stress can hit harder than some other types of stress. For example, the
stress that comes from a conflicted relationship tends to bring a greater physical reaction and a
stronger sense of distress than the stress that comes from being busy at work.
Therefore, it is important to be able to manage emotional stress in effective ways. Strategies that
help you to process, diffuse, and build resilience toward emotional stress can all work well, and
different approaches can work in different situations.
3.4. Here are some ways to manage emotional stress.
 Let music aid you: Music can help relax your mind and body.
 Practice mindfulness: Mindfulness can help keep you rooted in the present moment.
 Talk to a friend: Learn about the several different types of social support friends can offer
you.
 Talk to a therapist: A therapist can help you identify the source of your emotional stress
as well as which strategies and techniques may help you best combat your stress.
 Write in a journal: There are several different journaling strategies to try, all with
benefits.
Battling Burnout
Burnout is the result of the prolonged chronic stress of situations that leave people feeling a lack
of control in their lives. Certain conditions of a job can create a greater risk of burnout, including
not only a high level of demands, but also unclear expectations, lack of recognition for
achievements, and a high level of risk of negative consequences when mistakes are made.4
Once you reach a state of burnout, it is difficult to maintain motivation to work and complete
what you need to accomplish, and you can feel chronically overwhelmed. In addition to the
strategies that work well for chronic stress and emotional stress, the following strategies can help
you to come back from a state of burnout—or prevent it entirely.
 Get more enjoyment out of your current job: If you landed in a job you don't love, all
is not lost. Learn how to make your job more fulfilling.
 Indulge in hobbies: Don't wait until your life calms down to engage in your hobbies.
 Make your weekends count: Learn how to bring some of your weekend into your work
week for less stress.

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 Maintain a sense of humor: Use laughter to bring joy into you day and increase your
overall health.
 Take some time off: A little time away from the stresses of daily life can leave you
feeling refreshed and better equipped to handle stress.
3.5. Further more Stress Management
Effective stress management helps you break the hold stress has on your life, so you can be
happier, healthier, and more productive. The ultimate goal is a balanced life, with time for work,
relationships, relaxation, and fun and the resilience to hold up under pressure and meet
challenges head on. But stress management is not one-size-fits-all. That’s why it’s important to
experiment and find out what works best for you. The following stress management tips can help
you do that.
Tip 1: Identify the sources of stress in your life
Stress management starts with identifying the sources of stress in your life. This isn’t as
straightforward as it sounds. While it’s easy to identify major stressors such as changing jobs,
moving, or going through a divorce, pinpointing the sources of chronic stress can be more
complicated. It’s all too easy to overlook how your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
contribute to your everyday stress levels.
Sure, you may know that you’re constantly worried about work deadlines, but maybe it’s your
procrastination, rather than the actual job demands, that is causing the stress.
To identify your true sources of stress, look closely at your habits, attitude, and excuses:
 Do you explain away stress as temporary (―I just have a million things going on right now‖)
even though you can’t remember the last time you took a breather?
 Do you define stress as an integral part of your work or home life (―Things are always crazy
around here‖) or as a part of your personality (―I have a lot of nervous energy, that’s all‖)?
 Do you blame your stress on other people or outside events, or view it as entirely normal and
unexceptional?
Tip 2: Practice the 4 A’s of stress management
While stress is an automatic response from your nervous system, some stressors arise at
predictable times: your commute to work, a meeting with your boss, or family gatherings, for
example. When handling such predictable stressors, you can either change the situation or
change your reaction. When deciding which option to choose in any given scenario, it’s helpful
to think of the four A’s: avoid, alter, adapt, or accept.

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The four A’s – Avoid, Alter, Adapt & Accept
Avoid unnecessary stress
It’s not healthy to avoid a stressful situation that needs to be addressed, but you may be surprised
by the number of stressors in your life that you can eliminate.
Learn how to say “no.” Know your limits and stick to them. Whether in your personal or
professional life, taking on more than you can handle is a surefire recipe for stress. Distinguish
between the ―shoulds‖ and the ―musts‖ and, when possible, say ―no‖ to taking on too much.
Avoid people who stress you out. If someone consistently causes stress in your life, limit the
amount of time you spend with that person, or end the relationship.
Take control of your environment. If the evening news makes you anxious, turn off the TV. If
traffic makes you tense, take a longer but less-traveled route. If going to the market is an
unpleasant chore, do your grocery shopping online.
Pare down your to-do list. Analyze your schedule, responsibilities, and daily tasks. If you’ve
got too much on your plate, drop tasks that aren’t truly necessary to the bottom of the list or
eliminate them entirely.
Alter the situation
If you can’t avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Often, this involves changing the way you
communicate and operate in your daily life.
Express your feelings instead of bottling them up. If something or someone is bothering you,
be more assertive and communicate your concerns in an open and respectful way. If you’ve got
an exam to study for and your chatty roommate just got home, say up front that you only have
five minutes to talk. If you don’t voice your feelings, resentment will build and the stress will
increase.
Be willing to compromise. When you ask someone to change their behavior, be willing to do
the same. If you both are willing to bend at least a little, you’ll have a good chance of finding a
happy middle ground.
Create a balanced schedule. All work and no play is a recipe for burnout. Try to find a balance
between work and family life, social activities and solitary pursuits, daily responsibilities and
downtime.

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Adapt to the stressor
If you can’t change the stressor, change yourself. You can adapt to stressful situations and
regain your sense of control by changing your expectations and attitude.
Reframe problems. Try to view stressful situations from a more positive perspective. Rather
than fuming about a traffic jam, look at it as an opportunity to pause and regroup, listen to your
favorite radio station, or enjoy some alone time.
Look at the big picture. Take perspective of the stressful situation. Ask yourself how important
it will be in the long run. Will it matter in a month? A year? Is it really worth getting upset over?
If the answer is no, focus your time and energy elsewhere.
Adjust your standards. Perfectionism is a major source of avoidable stress. Stop setting
yourself up for failure by demanding perfection. Set reasonable standards for yourself and others,
and learn to be okay with ―good enough.‖
Practice gratitude. When stress is getting you down, take a moment to reflect on all the things
you appreciate in your life, including your own positive qualities and gifts. This simple strategy
can help you keep things in perspective.
Accept the things you can’t change
Some sources of stress are unavoidable. You can’t prevent or change stressors such as the death
of a loved one, a serious illness, or a national recession. In such cases, the best way to cope with
stress is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be difficult, but in the long run, it’s easier
than railing against a situation you can’t change.
Don’t try to control the uncontrollable. Many things in life are beyond our control, particularly
the behavior of other people. Rather than stressing out over them, focus on the things you can
control such as the way you choose to react to problems.
Look for the upside. When facing major challenges, try to look at them as opportunities for
personal growth. If your own poor choices contributed to a stressful situation, reflect on them
and learn from your mistakes.
Learn to forgive. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world and that people make
mistakes. Let go of anger and resentments. Free yourself from negative energy by forgiving and
moving on.
Share your feelings. Expressing what you’re going through can be very cathartic, even if there’s
nothing you can do to alter the stressful situation. Talk to a trusted friend or make an

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appointment with a therapist.
Tip 3: Get moving
When you’re stressed, the last thing you probably feel like doing is getting up and exercising.
But physical activity is a huge stress reliever—and you don’t have to be an athlete or spend
hours in a gym to experience the benefits. Exercise releases endorphins that make you feel good,
and it can also serve as a valuable distraction from your daily worries.
While you’ll get the most benefit from regularly exercising for 30 minutes or more, it’s okay to
build up your fitness level gradually. Even very small activities can add up over the course of a
day. The first step is to get yourself up and moving. Here are some easy ways to incorporate
exercise into your daily schedule:
Put on some music and dance around.
Take your dog for a walk.
Walk or cycle to the grocery store.
Use the stairs at home or work rather than an elevator.
Park your car in the farthest spot in the lot and walk the rest of the way.
Pair up with an exercise partner and encourage each other as you work out.
Play ping-pong or an activity-based video game with your kids.
The stress-busting magic of mindful rhythmic exercise
While just about any form of physical activity can help burn away tension and stress, rhythmic
activities are especially effective. Good choices include walking, running, swimming, dancing,
cycling, tai chi, and aerobics. But whatever you choose, make sure it’s something you enjoy so
you’re more likely to stick with it.
While you’re exercising, make a conscious effort to pay attention to your body and the physical
(and sometimes emotional) sensations you experience as you’re moving. Focus on coordinating
your breathing with your movements, for example, or notice how the air or sunlight feels on your
skin. Adding this mindfulness element will help you break out of the cycle of negative thoughts
that often accompanies overwhelming stress.
Tip 4: Connect to others
There is nothing more calming than spending quality time with another human being who makes
you feel safe and understood. In fact, face-to-face interaction triggers a cascade of hormones that

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counteracts the body’s defensive ―fight-or-flight‖ response. It’s nature’s natural stress reliever
(as an added bonus, it also helps stave off depression and anxiety). So make it a point to connect
regularly—and in person—with family and friends. Keep in mind that the people you talk to
don’t have to be able to fix your stress. They simply need to be good listeners. And try not to let
worries about looking weak or being a burden keep you from opening up. The people who care
about you will be flattered by your trust. It will only strengthen your bond.
Of course, it’s not always realistic to have a pal close by to lean on when you feel overwhelmed
by stress, but by building and maintaining a network of close friends you can improve your
resiliency to life’s stressors.
Tips for building relationships
a. Reach out to a colleague at work.
b. Help someone else by volunteering.
c. Have lunch or coffee with a friend.
d. Ask a loved one to check in with you regularly.
e. Accompany someone to the movies or a concert.
f. Call or email an old friend.
g. Go for a walk with a workout buddy.
h. Schedule a weekly dinner date.
i. Meet new people by taking a class or joining a club.
j. Confide in a clergy member, teacher, or sports coach.
Tip 5: Make time for fun and relaxation
Beyond a take-charge approach and a positive attitude, you can reduce stress in your life by
carving out ―me‖ time. Don’t get so caught up in the hustle and bustle of life that you forget to
take care of your own needs. Nurturing yourself is a necessity, not a luxury. If you regularly
make time for fun and relaxation, you’ll be in a better place to handle life’s stressors.
Set aside leisure time. Include rest and relaxation in your daily schedule. Don’t allow other
obligations to encroach. This is your time to take a break from all responsibilities and recharge
your batteries.
4. Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills
4.1 What are Interpersonal and interpersonal Skills?
Interpersonal skills are the skills required to effectively communicate, interact, and work with
individuals and groups. Those with good interpersonal skills are strong verbal and non-verbal
communicators and are often considered to be ―good with people‖. Whether they’re used in your
career or personal life, these skills are important for success.

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If you’re looking for ideas and examples, here is a list of the most common
Interpersonal skills:
Awareness (of yourself and others)
Caring about other people
Collaborating and working well together with others
Comforting people when they need it
Clear communication skills
Conflict management and resolution skills
Interpersonal interaction skills play a major 16 part in the communications between student and
teacher. These skills are dependent upon the teacher's ability to provide the core conditions of
warmth, empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness, self-disclosure, immediacy, and
confrontation. When a teacher is able to provide effective levels of these conditions, a positive
impact is made on student achievement.
There are various causes of today's graduates are difficult to get employment and unemployment
problems. One of the main causes is that many graduates fail in the early stages of the interview.
This is due to weakness in communication skills between the interviewers. According to Rahman
(2000) states that 80 percent of people fail in his career is due to their inability to communicate
and connect with others. The failure of individuals to communicate well not only for English but
also the Malay language is spoken and the official medium for teaching and learning. Most
employers find graduates lack skills is the root cause employers to be careful to hire graduates
working in private firms and government. As a result of these factors, a large number of
graduates failed the interview. Found that their failure in communication skills can cause
problems in terms of social existence, cooperation, communication techniques and conflict
management.
Importance of Interpersonal Skills for Students
1. It helps them ask their doubts from teachers and learn better
2. Helps in building good relationships with their peer group, teachers, family members and
society
3. Boost their confidence and personality development
4. Helps them express their thoughts/ideas and feelings to their parents, teachers or
classmates to get help/support
5. Improves their social status as they interact and entertain their friends and acquaintances

22. 17
6. It helps them value the diversity, individual respect and different customs in the
society
7. With better soft skills, a person is considered more ethical and gets respect in society
4.2. Intra-personal (social) skills
Unlike interpersonal skills like active listening, intrapersonal skills may have less of an
immediate impact on your interactions with others. But they’re still essential.
Basic Communication Skills. These include the ability to listen, follow directions and
refrain from speaking. ...
Empathy and Rapport Skills. ...
Interpersonal Skills. ...
Problem Solving Skills. ...
Accountability.
Importance for academic students.
People with strong self-regulation abilities often have an easier time:
 managing behavior and emotions
 weathering challenges
 working toward goals in spite of distractions
Unlike interpersonal skills like active listening, intrapersonal skills may have less of an
immediate impact on your interactions with others. But they’re still essential.
Don’t worry if these skills don’t come to you naturally. It’s absolutely possible to cultivate
intrapersonal intelligence. The 10 tips below can help.
Redirect your natural talents
Very few people are naturally good at everything, and that’s OK! But you probably have some
specific strengths, even if you don’t recognize them yet.
Maybe you have a knack for patience with small children or rude co-workers, but you’re less
patient with yourself when you make mistakes.

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Or perhaps you’re a fantastic problem-solver at work but have a hard time addressing difficulties
in your personal life.
It’s common to direct emotional skills outward in ways that benefit others and fail to apply those
same skills to your own experiences.
This can make it seem like you lack those skills, when really you just find it easier to help other
people. But you deserve that same support.
Make time for self-reflection
Self-reflection might seem like a pretty big undertaking. And yes, it can cover a lot of ground.
But it really just involves thinking over your actions, choices, and the things important in your
life, including personal values and loved ones.
When you self-reflect, you might pay attention to what habits work well for you and where you
experience challenges.
Maybe you:
 avoid friends instead of leaning on them when struggling
 procrastinate on tasks at work when you don’t understand them
The process can also help reinforce your knowledge of the people and things that really matter.
This gives you the chance to explore new ways to achieve or hold on to those things.
For example, your friends mean a lot to you, so you decide you need to find a coping method
that doesn’t involve shutting them out.
Cultivate compassion
Increasing compassion for others can help you get more in tune with your own emotional
experience and help your self-compassion flourish.
Compassion doesn’t always come easily. It’s often especially difficult to have compassion for
people who treat others badly and demonstrate unkind, uncaring behavior.
But the saying ―Put yourself in their shoes‖ is always a good place to start. Considering another
person’s perspective often provides insight on why they might act in a certain way.
Performing a random act of kindness can also help promote positive feelings toward others and
yourself.
It also helps to remember everyone makes mistakes

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Practice positive self-talk
The way you talk to yourself and think about yourself can have a big impact on your internal
experience.
Negative thought patterns and harsh self-criticism may seem like a good way to motivate
yourself and hold yourself accountable for mistakes, but more often than not, these have the
opposite effect.
Instead of mentally chewing yourself out when you mess up, try taking a look at where you
succeeded instead. What went right for you?
It’s still wise to note where you might have room to grow. But praising yourself for strengths and
achievements can help you approach these weaker points with more confidence and
determination.
Doing so can help it become easier to try again later.
Consider your goals
Goals say a lot about who you are as a person and what drives you. They help inform your
choices and shape your life.
It’s important to have goals, both for the immediate and more distant future.
Success with smaller goals, like breaking an unwanted habit or reading a book every month, can
empower you to make broader goals that require long-term effort, such as reducing your carbon
footprint or becoming a completely honest person.
Realistic goals take into account your limitations and personal strengths.
Recognizing your past accomplishments furthers self-awareness while also bolstering your
courage to take bigger steps with future goals.
Thinking about the person you want to become can help you continue setting goals to achieve
those dreams.
5. Developmental Disorders
Developmental disorders are impairments in a child’s physical, cognitive, language, or
behavioral development. They can impact everyday functioning and usually last throughout a
person’s lifetime. Developmental disorders can affect physical abilities, such as vision, and
mental abilities, such as learning. Many of these conditions affect multiple body parts or
systems.

25. 20
Developmental disorders can take a toll on an individual’s physical, intellectual and emotional
growth. Providers at Maine Health are committed to monitoring and screening patients so that
they can get the early intervention they need.
The term "developmental disorder" or "developmental disability" means a severe, chronic
disability of an individual that:
 is attributable to a mental or physical impairment, or combination of mental and physical
impairment
 is manifested before the individual attains the age of 22
 is likely to continue indefinitely
 results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following areas of major
life activity:
5.1 Developmental disorder causes
Most developmental disorders begin before a baby is born, but some can happen after birth
because of injury, infection or other factors.
Many developmental disorders are believed to be caused by different factors. Some factors
include:
 Injury
 Infection
 Genetics
 Exposure to high levels of environmental toxins (such as lead)
 Use of alcohol or other substances during pregnancy
5.2. Developmental disorder types
Some types of developmental disorders include:
 ADHD
 Autism spectrum disorder
 Cerebral palsy
 Hearing loss
 Intellectual disability
 Learning disability
 Vision impairment
5.3. Developmental disorder treatment
Developmental delay is generally not curable, however it can be treated. Treatment programs
may include:
Individual and family therapies
Medications

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Applied behavioral analysis
Occupational and speech therapy
Physical therapy
Special education
Treatment of underlying medical issues, if present
5.4. Developmental Delay:
Developmental delay is defined as failure to meet expected developmental milestones in one or
more of the following areas: physical, social, emotional, intellectual, speech and language and/or
adaptive development (sometimes called self-help skills, which include dressing, toileting,
feeding, etc).
These delays are diagnosed when a child performs approximately 25 to 30 percent below age
norms in one or more of these areas (with adjustment for prematurity in affected children).
Progress occurs at a slower than expected rate following the anticipated sequence. Various
medical and environmental causes exist.
6. Personality
Personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently
think, feel, and behave in specific ways. Our personality is what makes us unique individuals.
Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in
which he or she interacts with other individuals and the world around them. Our personalities are
thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The word personality comes from the
Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend
to think of a mask as being worn to conceal one’s identity, the theatrical mask was originally
used to either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character .
The traits with the strongest research backing them are the Big Five:
 Openness
 Conscientiousness
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness

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 Neuroticism
6.1. Openness
Openness is shorthand for "openness to experience." People who are high in openness enjoy
adventure. They're curious and appreciate art, imagination and new things. The motto of the open
individual might be, "variety is the spice of life."
People low in openness is just the opposite: They prefer to stick to their habits, avoid new
experiences and probably aren't the most adventurous eaters.
6.2 Conscientiousness
People who are conscientious are organized and have a strong sense of duty. They're dependable,
disciplined and achievement-focused. You won't find conscientious types jetting off on round-
the-world journeys without an itinerary; they're planners.
6.3 Extraversion
Extraversion versus introversion is possibly the most recognizable personality trait of the Big
Five. The more of an extravert someone is, the more of a social butterfly they are. Extraverts are
chatty, sociable and draw energy from crowds. They tend to be assertive and cheerful in their
social interactions.
Introverts, on the other hand, need plenty of alone time. Introversion is often confused with
shyness, but the two aren't the same. Shyness implies a fear of social interactions or an inability
to function socially. Introverts can be perfectly charming at parties — they just prefer solo or
small-group activities.
6.4. Agreeableness
Agreeableness’ measures the extent of a person's warmth and kindness. The more agreeable
someone is, the more likely they are to be trusting, helpful and compassionate. Disagreeable
people are cold and suspicious of others, and they're less likely to cooperate.
As you might imagine, agreeableness has its benefits. In a 25-year study published in
Developmental Psychology in 2002, agreeable kids had fewer behavioral problems than kids low
in agreeableness, and agreeable adults had less depression and greater job stability than adults
who were low in agreeableness.

28. 23
Summery
Behavioral Development more elaborated in cognitive and emotional development, skill
acquisition, atypical behavior development/reduction, socialization, education, and language
development, among other topics. It looks at the role of biological and environmental variables
that affect behavior development, with a primary interest in the role of reinforcement and
environmental contingencies that influence behavior change.
Nurture assumes that correlations between environmental factors and psychological outcomes
are caused environmentally. For example, how much parents read with their children and how
well children learn to read appear to be related. Other examples include environmental stress and
its effect on depression. However, behavioral genetics argues that what look like environmental
effects are to a large extent really a reflection of genetic differences).
Effective stress management helps you break the hold stress has on your life, so you can be
happier, healthier, and more productive. The ultimate goal is a balanced life, with time for work,
relationships, relaxation, and fun and the resilience to hold up under pressure and meet
challenges head on.
Interpersonal interaction skills play a major 16 part in the communications between student and
teacher. These skills are dependent upon the teacher's ability to provide the core conditions of
warmth, empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness, self-disclosure, immediacy, and
confrontation. When a teacher is able to provide effective levels of these conditions, a positive
impact is made on student achievement.
Stress is actually a normal part of life. At times, it serves a useful purpose. Stress can motivate
you to get that promotion at work, or run the last mile of a marathon. But if you don't get a
handle on your stress and it becomes long-term, it can seriously interfere with your job, family
life, and health. More than half of Americans say they fight with friends and loved ones because
of stress, and more than 70% say they experience real physical and emotional symptoms from it.
Student’s Interpersonal skills not only help them in their education/school life but throughout
their career too. As students develop their interpersonal skills during school, it becomes a part of
their behavior and helps them interact with people from different sectors. Employers too consider
student interpersonal skills an important factor in selecting a candidate. Hence, interpersonal
skills increase chances of employability and a successful career and life.

29. 24
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