This document provides summaries of several theories of human growth and development, including: - Definitions of growth vs development, with growth referring to physical changes and development referring to increased complexity of skills and functions. - Freud's psychosexual stages of oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. - Erikson's psychosocial stages from trust vs mistrust in infancy to integrity vs despair in old age. - Piaget's stages of cognitive development from sensorimotor to formal operations. - Kohlberg's stages of moral development from punishment and obedience orientation to universal ethical principles.

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Human Growth and Development
Definition
The term growth and development both refers to dynamic process. Often used
interchangeably, these terms have different meanings. Growth and development are
interdependent, interrelated process. Growth generally takes place during the first 20
years of life.; development continues after that.
Growth:
1. Is physical change and increase in size.
2. It can be measured quantitatively.
3. Indicators of growth includes height, weight, bone size, and dentition.
4. Growth rates vary during different stages of growth and development.
5. The growth rate is rapid during the prenatal, neonatal, infancy and adolescent
stages and slows during childhood.
6. Physical growth is minimal during adulthood.
Development:
1. Is an increase in the complexity of function and skill progression.
2. It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment.
3. Development is the behavioral aspect of growth

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Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Oral Birth to 1½
y/o
Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratification & exploration)
Primary need: Security
Major conflict: weaning
2. Anal 1½ to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual satisfaction & self-control)
Major conflict: toilet training
3. Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation)
Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex
4.
Latency
6 y/o to
puberty
Energy directed to physical & intellectual activities
Sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers of same sex
5.
Genital
Puberty
onwards
Energy directed towards full sexual maturity & function & development
of skills to cope with the environment
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory
STAGE AGE CENTRAL
TASK
(+) RESOLUTION (-) RESOLUTION
1. Infancy Birth-18
mos
Trust vs
Mistrust
Learn to trust
others
Mistrust,
withdrawal,
estrangement
2. Early
childhood
1½ to 3 y/o Autonomy vs
Shame &
doubt
Self control w/o
loss of self esteem
Ability of cooperate
& express oneself
Compulsive, self-
restraint or
compliance.
Willfulness &
defiance.
3. Late
childhood
3 to 5 y/o Initiative vs
guilt
Learns to become
assertive
Ability to evaluate
one’s own behavior
Lack of self-
confidence.
Pessimism, fear of

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wrongdoing.
Over-control &
over-restriction.
4. School Age 6 to 12 y/o Industry vs
Inferiority
Learns to create,
develop &
manipulate.
Develop sense of
competence &
perseverance.
Loss of hope, sense
of being mediocre.
Withdrawal from
school & peers.
5. Adolescence 12–20 y/o Identity vs role
confusion
Coherent sense of
self.
Plans to actualize
one’s abilities
Feelings of
confusion,
indecisiveness, &
possible anti-social
behavior.
6. Young
Adulthood
18-25 y/o Intimacy vs
isolation
Intimate
relationship with
another person.
Commitment to
work and
relationships.
Impersonal
relationships.
Avoidance of
relationship, career
or lifestyle
commitments.
7. Adulthood 25-65 y/o Generativity
vs stagnation
Creativity,
productivity,
concern for others.
Self-indulgence,
self-concern, lack
of interests &
commitments.
8. Maturity 65 y/o to
death
Integrity vs
despair
Acceptance of
worth &
uniqueness of one’s
own life.
Acceptance of
death.
Sense of loss,
contempt for
others.

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Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks
DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGE
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
1. Infancy & early childhood eat solid foods
walk
talk
control elimination of wastes
relate emotionally to others
distinguish right from wrong through development of a
conscience
learn sex differences and sexual modesty
achieve personal independence
form simple concepts of social & physical reality
2. Middle childhood learn physical skills, required for games
build healthy attitudes towards oneself
learn to socialize with peers
learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills
develop concepts necessary for everyday living
formulate a conscience based on a value system
achieve personal independence
develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions
3. Adolescence establish more mature relationships with same-age individuals of
both sexes
achieve a masculine or feminine social role
accept own body
establish emotional independence from parents
achieve assurance of economic independence
prepare for an occupation
prepare for marriage & establishment of a family
acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities
develop a set of values that guides behavior
4. Early Adulthood select a partner
learn to live with a partner
start a family

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manage a home
establish self in a career/occupation
assume civic responsibilities
become part of a social group
5. Middle Adulthood fulfill civic & social responsibilities
maintain an economic standard of living
assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults
relate one’s partner
adjust to physiological changes
adjust to aging parents
6. Later Maturity – adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health status
– adjust to retirement & altered income
– adjust to death of spouse
– develop affiliation with one’s age group
– meet civic & social responsibilities
– establish satisfactory living arrangements
Levinson’s Seasons of Adulthood
AGE SEASON CHARACTERISTICS
18-20 yrs Early adult transition Seeks independence by separating from family
21-27 yrsEntrance into the adult worldExperiments with different careers & lifestyles
28-32 yrs Transition Makes lifestyle adjustments
33-39 yrs Settling down Experiences greater stability
45-65 yrs Pay-off years Is self-directed & engages in self-evaluation
Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development
STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION
1. Infancy Birth to 1
yrs
Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs & desires
2. Childhood 1½ to 6
yrs
Child begins learning to delay immediate gratification of needs &
desires

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3. Juvenile 6 to 9 yrs Child forms fulfilling peer relationships
4. Preadolescence 9 to 12 yrs Child relates successfully to same-sex peers
5. Early
Adolescence
12 to 14
yrs
Adolescent learns to be independent & forms relationships with
members of opposite sex
6. Late
Adolescence
14 to 21
yrs
Person establishes an intimate, long-lasting relationship with
someone of the opposite sex
Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive Development
PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION
a. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs Sensory organs & muscles become more
functional
Stage 1: Use of reflexes Birth to 1
month
Movements are primarily reflexive
Stage 2: Primary circular reaction 1-4 months Perceptions center around one’s body.
Objects are perceived as extensions of the
self.
Stage 3: Secondary circular
reaction
4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment.
Initiates acts to change the movement.
Stage 4: Coordination of secondary
schemata
8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed
activities.
Stage 5: Tertiary circular reaction 12-18
months
Experiments with methods to reach goals.
Develops rituals that become significant.
Stage 6: Invention of new means 18-24
months
Uses mental imagery to understand the
environment.
Uses fantasy.
b. Pre-operational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think
Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 year Thinking tends to be egocentric.

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Exhibits use of symbolism.
Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into
separate parts.
Able to classify objects according to one
trait.
c. Concrete Operations 7-11 years Learns to reason about events in the
here-and-now.
d. Formal Operations 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in
the abstract.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION
LEVEL I: Pre-conventional Authority figures are obeyed.
(Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done.
Stage 1: Punishment & obedience
orientation
A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is punished; the activity is
“right” if one is not punished.
Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist
orientation
“Right” is defined as that which is acceptable to & approved by
the self.
When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are “right.”
LEVEL II: Conventional Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained.
(9-13 years) Approval of others is sought through one’s actions.
Stage 3: Interpersonal
concordance
Authority is respected.
Stage 4: Law and order
orientation
Individual feels “duty bound” to maintain social order.
Behavior is “right” when it conforms to the rules.
LEVEL III: Post-conventional Individual understands the morality of having democratically
established laws.

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(13+ years)
Stage 5: Social contract
orientation
It is “wrong” to violate others’ rights.
Stage 6: Universal ethics
orientation
The person understands the principles of human rights & personal
conscience.
Person believes that trust is basis for relationships.
Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS
I. Orientation of Individual
Survival Transition
Concentrates on what is best for self.
Selfish.
Dependent on others.
Transition 1: From Selfishness
to Responsibility
Recognizes connections to others.
Makes responsible choices in terms of self and others.
II. Goodness as Self-sacrifice Puts needs of others ahead of own.
Feels responsible for others.
Is dependent.
May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to “help.”
Transition 2: From Goodness
to Truth
Decisions based on intentions & consequences, not on others’
responses.
Considers needs of self and others.
Wants to help others while being responsible to self.
Increased social participation.
III. Morality of Nonviolence Sees self and others as morally equal
Assumes responsibilities for own decisions.
Basic tenet to hurt no one including self.

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Conflict between selfishness and selflessness.
Self-judgment is not dependent on others’ perceptions but rather
on consequences & intentions of actions.
Fowler’s Stages of Faith
STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Pre-stage:
Undifferentiated faith
Infant Trust, hope and love compete with environmental
inconsistencies or threats if abandonment.
Stage 1: Intuitive-
projective faith
Toddler-preschoolerImitates parental behaviors and attitudes about
religion and spirituality.
Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts.
Stage 2: Mythical-literal
faith
School-aged child Accepts existence of a deity.
Religious & moral beliefs are symbolized by stories.
Appreciates others’ viewpoints.
Accepts concept of reciprocal fairness.
Stage 3: Synthetic-
conventional faith
Adolescent Questions values & religious beliefs in an attempt to
form own identity.
Stage 4: Individuative-
reflective faith
Late adolescent &
young adult
Assumes responsibility for own attitudes & beliefs.
Stage 5: Conjunctive faith Adult Integrates other perspectives about faith into own
definition of truth.
Stage 6: Universalizing
faith
Adult Makes concepts of love & justice tangible.