This document discusses triangulation as an approach to establish credibility and dependability in qualitative research studies. It defines triangulation as using multiple methods, data sources, investigators, and theories to confirm research findings. The document outlines different types of triangulation, including data triangulation using time, space and people, method triangulation at the design and data collection levels, investigator triangulation, and theory triangulation. It emphasizes that triangulation helps provide a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study and validate qualitative research findings.

1. Triangulation:
Approach to establish Credibility and
Dependability of Qualitative Studies
Dr. Sankar Prasad Mohanty
Associate Professor of Education
Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar
Email: sankarprasadmohanty@rdwu.ac.in

2. Qualitative Research
• Emerged as criticism of quantitative research:
 Quantitative: Numbers, calculations
 Qualitative: Words, interpretations
2

3. Qualitative Research
• Frequently referred to as : Naturalistic Inquiry or
Field Research
• Assumes that behavior occurs in a context, i.e.
significantly influenced by the environment in which
it occurs
3

4. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative
Research
Qualitative
• Gained recognition only in late 20th century
(1980’s)
• Developed in the social sciences to enable
researchers to study social and cultural
phenomena.
• Is seen as subjective and preferring language
and description.
4

5. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative
Research
Qualitative
• Is used as an umbrella term to refer to several
research methods and procedures.
• Focuses on understanding of social phenomena
• Emphasis on seeing through eyes of people being
studied
5

6. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative
Research
• Emphasis on ‘thick description’
• Flexibility
• Concepts and theories grounded in data
6

7. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research
Qualitative
• Involves methods of data collection and analysis
that are non-quantitative (Lofland and Lofland,
1984)
• No formal or pre-determined hypotheses
• Natural setting
7

8. Main Features of Qualitative
Research
• Uses the natural setting as the source of
data (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982).
• The researcher acts as “human instrument”
of data collection.
• Predominantly use inductive data analysis to
generate theories
8

9. Main Features of Qualitative Research
• Research reports are descriptive,
incorporating presence of voice in the text.
• Use of multiple methods of data collection or
triangulation (Usually Participant observation)
• Emphasis on hypothesis formulation rather
than testing.
9

10. Main Features of Qualitative
Research
• Does not rely on a priori theory. The goal is
to generate theories from the data.
• Data collection and data analysis is a
simultaneous process.
10

11. Comparison of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Purpose
• To study relationships;
cause and effect
Approach
• Deductive: tests theory;
value free (Objective);
outcome-oriented
Purpose
• Explain and gain insight
of phenomena
Approach
• Inductive: may generate
theory; value-laden
(subjective); process-
oriented
11

12. Comparison of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Hypotheses
• Specific, testable, stated
prior to study
Literature Review
• Extensive; affects study
significantly
Hypotheses
• Tentative, evolving
Literature Review
• Limited; affects study
significantly
12

13. Comparison of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Research setting
• Controlled
Design
• Structured; Rigid;
developed prior to
study
• Involve intervention,
manipulation and
control
Research setting
• Naturalistic (as it is)
Design
• Flexible; evolves during
study
• Involve non-
intervention; minimal
disturbance
13

14. Comparison of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Measurement
• Standardized;
numerical; at the end
Sample
• Random & Large
Tools
• Pre-selected:
quantitative tools
Measurement
• Non-standardized;
narrative; ongoing
Sample
• Purposive & Small
Tools
• Human instrument: the
researcher
14

15. Comparison of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Data Collection
• Non-Participant
observation, formal
interviews, tests,
questionnaires
Data Analysis
• Raw data are numbers,
statistical, performed at
the end
Data Collection
• Participant observation,
Documents, informal
interviews, FGD, field-
notes
Data Analysis
• Raw data are words;
Narrative, ongoing
15

16. Comparison of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Data Interpretation
• Conclusions &
Generalizations
formulated at the end
of study
Validity
• Single approach
Data Interpretation
• Conclusions tentative;
Generalizations non-
existent
Validity
• Multiple approach
(Triangulation, member
checking, prolonged
stay)
16

17. Trends
• More structured qualitative research
• Use of mixed research methods
17

18. Trustworthiness of Qualitative data
Triangulation
Use of multiple data sources, multiple data collection
methods, and even multiple teacher-researchers in
order to support the ultimate findings from the study
(Glesne, 1999; Hubbard & Power, 2003)
18

19. Trustworthiness of Qualitative data
Member Checking
Sharing of interview transcripts, observation
notes and draft report with the participants of
the study
19

20. Trustworthiness of Qualitative data
Prolonged engagement and persistent
observation:
More time you spend in the field, the more
you are able to develop trust on the data
collected
20

21. Criteria for Judging the Quality of
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Quantitative Qualitative
• Internal Validity • Credibility
• External Validity • Transferability
• Reliability • Dependability
• Objectivity • Confirmability
21

22. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research
Internal Validity vs. Credibility
• In quantitative research internal validity
refers to the extent to which the findings
accurately describe reality.
• In qualitative research Credibility becomes
the test for the presence of multiple realities
22

23. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research
Lincoln and Guba (1998) have proposed the
following techniques to enhance credibility of
the outcomes:
• Prolonged engagement at research site
• Persistent observation
• Triangulation of data
• Adequacy of reference materials, e.g. documents,
films, videotapes
• Member checking
23

24. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research
External Validity vs. Transferability
• In quantitative research, external validity refers to
the generalizability of findings across different
settings
• In qualitative research, transferability refers to
providing sufficient information so as to determine
whether the findings are applicable to the new
situation. It can be enhanced through purposive
sampling
24

25. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research
Reliability vs. Dependability
To enhance the dependability of qualitative
research, one can use “inquiry audit” in which
reviewers examine both the process and the
product of the research for consistency
25

26. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research
Objectivity vs. Conformability
• Quantitative research is relatively value-free,
and therefore objective.
• Qualitative research, which relies on
interpretations, is value bound, and
considered to be subjective
26

27. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research
• Confirmability refers to the degree to
which the researcher can demonstrate the
neutrality of the research interpretations
27

28. WHAT IS TRIANGULATION?
• Literally refers something related to “Three”
• But in social science research literature, refers
to “multiple” method/approach to establish
credibility (synonym of validity) and
dependability (synonym of reliability) of
qualitative data.

29. • In quantitative research the Validity of findings is
established through single approach, but in
qualitative research “credibility” as well as
“dependability” of data is established through
multiple methods and/or approaches (e.g.
triangulation, member checking, prolonged stay).

30. For example
• In quantitative research, the data collected through
“tests” or “scales” from a single source, are not
necessarily supported by data collected through
other tools and/or from other sources.
• In qualitative research, the data collected through
“observations” or “interviews”, are essentially
supported by data through other tools (e.g. focus
group discussions, photographs, field notes) and/or
from other sources (e.g. parents, teachers,
neighbours).

31. Uses
• Currently, in mixed method approach to
research perspective, triangulation can be
used in almost all types of studies in social
sciences.
• Thus, triangulation is an approach to research
that uses a combination of more than one
research strategy in a single investigation.

32. Broad Purposes
• Qualitative investigators may choose
triangulation as a research strategy to assure
completeness of findings or to confirm
findings.

33. Assure Completeness
• The most accurate description of the elephant comes
from a combination of all three individuals' descriptions.
Confirm Findings
• Researchers choose triangulation to confirm findings and
conclusions.
• Any single qualitative research strategy has its limitations.
• By combining different strategies, researchers confirm
findings by overcoming the limitations of a single strategy.
• Uncovering the same information from more than one
helps researchers describe how the findings occurred
under different circumstances and assists them to confirm
the validity of the findings.

34. Types of Triangulation
1) Data Triangulation
• Time, Space, Person
2) Method Triangulation
• Design
• Data collection
3) Investigator Triangulation
4) Theory Triangulation
5) Multiple Triangulation
Uses a combination of two or more triangulation
techniques in one study

35. 1. Data Triangulation
Denzin (1989) described three types of data
triangulation: (1) time, (2) space, and (3)
person.
Time triangulation
• In time triangulation, researchers collect data
about a phenomenon at different points of
time so as to document changes over time.

36. Space triangulation
Space triangulation consists of collecting data at
more than one site.
Person Triangulation
In person triangulation, researchers collect data from
more than one level of person, e.g. parents,
teachers, community members.

37. 2. Method Triangulation
• Methods triangulation can occur at the level of design
or data collection.
• Methods triangulation at the design level has also
been called between-method triangulation and
methods triangulation at the data collection level has
been called within-method triangulation.

38. Design Level
• Design level triangulation uses quantitative methods
combined with qualitative methods in the study
design.
Data Collection Level
• Using methods triangulation at the level of data
collection, researchers use different techniques of
data collection (e.g. Surveys, FGDs, Interviews), each
within the same research tradition so as to provide a
holistic and better understanding of the phenomenon
under study.

39. 3. Investigator Triangulation
• Investigator triangulation occurs when two or
more researchers with divergent backgrounds
and expertise work together on the same
study.
• Multiple Investigators have prominent roles in
the study and their areas of expertise must be
complementary.
• All the investigators discuss their individual
findings and reach a conclusion, which
includes all findings.

40. 4. Theory Triangulation
• Theory triangulation incorporates the use of more
than one lens or theory in the analysis of the same
data set.
• In qualitative research, more than one theoretical
explanation emerges from the data.
• Researcher contrasts with different disciplines,
theories
• Multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data

41. • Example : Interviewing the participants from a
nutrition program to learn what healthy
lifestyle practice changes attribute to
participate in a program.
• Share the transcripts with colleagues in
different disciplines (nutrition science,
nursing, pharmacy, public health education,
etc.) to see what their interpretations.