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1. Grounded Theory as a
Method of Qualitative
Analysis

2. Overview
 Qualitative Data Analysis
 Coding as theory building
 What is grounded theory method
 Grounded theory and literature
 History of the method
 Coding paradigms
 Some philosophical and practical issues.
 Implications for researchers adopting the
method.

3. 3 Aspects of Qualitative Data
Analysis Dey 1993
 Description
– ‘thick’ description, context, intentions, process
 Classification
– conceptual foundations for analysis and
comparison, guided by research objectives
(CODES or THEMES)
 Interconnections
– builds the theory (RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN CODES)

4. CONCEPT 1
CONCEPT 2
Relationship
Theories are built from Concepts

5. Coding as Theory Building
 Codes, or categories, are CONCEPTS
 Theories are built by naming concepts
and the relationships between them
Eg a tentative theory about personal ads –
Sports loving men(category 1) are more
likely to advertise for tall women
(category 2). What is therelationship? It
could be that sports loving men
have more conventional expectations of
women?
You could ground this in data, by proving that
there are many instances of these two linked
categories. How you theorise about this
relationship is up to you, but relate to current
theories

6. CONCEPT CONCEPT
The wall of theory
CONCEPT
CONCEPT CONCEPT
CONCEPT CONCEPT CONCEPT
CONCEPTCONCEPT
Relationships
Relationships
Relationships
Relationships

7. Grounded Theory Method
 Co-originators sociologists Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss
(1967).
 An inductive approach to generating
substantive theory that is ‘grounded’ in
the data.
 Has clear directives on coding data.
 Is a ‘bottom-up’ coding method
 There are disputes about
application and also the method.

8. Defining Grounded Theory 1
Dey 1999, Cresswell 1998
1. The aim of grounded theory is to
generate or discover a theory.
2. The researcher has to set aside
theoretical ideas in order to let the
substantive theory emerge.
3. Theory focuses on how individuals
interact with the phenomena under
study.

9. Defining Grounded Theory 2
Dey 1999, Cresswell 1998
4. Theory asserts a plausible relationship
between concepts and sets of concepts
5. Theory is derived from data acquired
from fieldwork interviews, observation,
and documents.
6. Data Analysis is systematic and begins
as soon as data is available.

10. Defining Grounded Theory 3
Dey 1999, Cresswell 1998
7. Data analysis proceeds through
identifying categories and connecting
them.
8. Further data collection (or sampling) is
based on emerging concepts.
9. These concepts are developed through
constant comparison with additional
data.

11. Defining Grounded Theory 4
Dey 1999, Cresswell 1998
10.Data collection can stop when no new
conceptualisations emerge.
11.Data analysis proceeds from open
coding (identifying categories,
properties and dimensions) through
selective coding (clustering around
categories), to theoretical coding.
12.The resulting theory can be reported in
a narrative framework or a set of
propositions.

12. Grounded theory and literature
 Setting aside theoretical ideas – why?
 Most people think that this means ignoringthe
literature
 The intention is to make sure thatresearchers
are not influenced by literature when
coding – otherwise you end up imposing
concepts on the data, instead of those
concepts emerging naturally
 For a dissertation, the idea is to have a
‘non committal’ literature review which is
then subsequently updated. The
emerging theory determines the relevance
of the literature review (Urquhart
and Fernandez2006)

13. Using Grounded Theory
Hughes and Howcroft 2000
Social
Setting
A ccount of
O rganizational
Life
Transcript
Pool
Memo
Pool
Selective Coding
Saturate
Categories
Validate and
Sample
Code and
Compare
Sort and
re-sort
Collect
Data
Constant comparative analysis
Theoretical sampling

14. Using Theoretical Memos and
Integrative Diagrams
 ‘Memos are the theorising write-up of ideas
about codes and relationships as they strike
the analyst while coding’ Glaser 1992
 These memos help with thediscussion of
the categories in the thesis or paper
 Integrative diagrams help visualise
relationships between categories and
give new views of the data
 Examples in Urquhart 2001

15. How Grounded Theory Approaches
Coding
1. Open coding - the data is examined and
coded at a word or sentence level.
2. Selective coding – coding around emergent
categories.
3. Theoretical coding - coding for one or
two ‘core’ categories and considering the
relationships
Note: Glaser version.
Strauss and Corbin – open, axial, selective stages

16. Open Coding
- codes which
become categories
and properties of
categories
Selective Coding
some codes become
categories, some
become properties,
some relationships
are made
1-2 core categories
‘emerge’
Theoretical coding
Finally, coding the
data for the core
categories.
Building the theory
by considering
relationships
carefully.

17. Two strands of grounded theory
 Most people think that Strauss
and Corbin (1990) is the
definitive bookon grounded theory
 In fact, it wasthe cause of a major
split between Glaser and Strauss,and
Glaser wrote a rejoinder in 1992.
 Over 34 years, the two
originators evolved two different
versions

18. Two strands of grounded theory
 The 1990 book provides one coding
paradigm (context, conditions,
interactions, conditions and
consequences) and has been
criticised for being mechanistic and rigid
 Glasers 1978 book provides 18 coding
‘families’ giving many more options –
examples include the interactive family
(mutual effects, reciprocity and interaction
effects), the strategy family(strategies,
means, ploys, goals), and the cutting point
family (critical juncture, boundary, turning
point)

19. Two strands of grounded theory
 Glaser claimed that the Strauss
‘forced’ the data into conceptual
description along narrow avenues, and
thus the theory could not
emerge
 Emergence vs. Forcing was thesubtitle
of his book

20. Some Philosophical Issues
 Grounded theory can be seen as post
positivist, but is an inductivemethod.
 Can be used independentlyof your
preferred philosophical paradigm eg
interpretivist, positivist.
 Need to be aware of the‘emergence
vs. forcing’ debate and ALL the
literature
Glaser 1992

21. Some Practical Advice about Using
Grounded Theory (1)
1. Easy to fall into the trap of
simply labelling rather than
analysing.
2. Open coding takes AGES - but rewards
you with rich material.
3. Using constant comparison method helps
- constantly comparing incident
to incident
-asking the question - what category or
property does this incident indicate?

22. Some Practical Advice about Using
Grounded Theory (2)
4. Be prepared to live with your data for a
long time.
5. Use Glaser’s (1978) theoretical
codes for ideas about
interconnections between
categories.
6. Be flexible about naming your codes.
7. A property can be elevated to a
category, and categories end up as
relationships.

23. Some Implications of this Inductive
Method
 Grounded Theory Method advises thatthe bulk ofthe
literature searchingbedone after the substantive
theory is developed.
 Theoretical sensitivity though, means being
aware of theory in general.
 The substantive theory should be related to
literature.
 This does not fit into a conventional thesis
template but this can be dealt with by the idea
of a preliminary literature review.
 Amount of data analysis has to be considered.
GTM analyses data at a deep level – so this
limits the number of sources that can be
analysed.

24. Conclusion
 A worthwhile method - rich findings and
a close tie to the data.
 Suited for many areasin IS where little
theory exists.
 Good for studying processes.
 Good for rigour - you can be
confident about what you
produce.