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Transport systems in animals

The document discusses the circulatory systems of various animals. It begins by describing simple gastrovascular cavities in simple animals like cnidarians and flatworms. It then covers open and closed circulatory systems, including the components of hearts, blood vessels, and blood/hemolymph. Details are provided on single and double circulation in vertebrates like fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The structure and function of the mammalian cardiovascular system is covered in depth, including cardiac cycle, blood flow, blood pressure regulation, and capillary exchange.

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ANIMAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM CHAPTER 6
Outline  Circulatory Systems  Open and Closed  Single and Double  Adaptations  Mammalian Transport System  Cardiac Cycle  Blood Flow and Pressure  Capillary Function and Exchange  Blood Composition and Function  Cardiovascular Disorders
Overview: Transport and Exchange  Every organism must exchange materials with its environment  Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level  In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur directly with the environment  For most cells making up multicellular organisms, direct exchange with the environment is not possible  Gills are an example of a specialized exchange system in animals  Internal transport and gas exchange are
Fig. 42-1
Circulatory systems  In small and/or thin animals, cells can exchange materials directly with the surrounding medium  In most animals, transport systems connect the organs of exchange with the body cells  Most complex animals have internal transport systems that circulate fluid
Gastrovascular Cavities  Simple animals, such as cnidarians and some aquatic animals, have a body wall that is only two cells thick and that encloses a gastrovascular cavity  This cavity functions in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body  Some cnidarians, such as jellies, have elaborate gastrovascular cavities  Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity and a large surface area to volume ratio
Fig. 42-2a Circular canal Radial canal Mouth moon jelly Aurelia, a cnidarian 5 cm
Fig. 42-2b The planarian Dugesia, a flatworm (b) Mouth Pharynx 2 mm
Open and Closed Circulatory Systems  More complex animals have either open or closed circulatory systems  Both systems have three basic components:  A circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)  A set of tubes (blood vessels)  A muscular pump (the heart)
 In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system  In an open circulatory system, there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this general body fluid is more correctly called hemolymph  In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid  Closed systems are more efficient at transporting Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
Fig. 42-3 Heart Hemolymph in sinuses surrounding organs Heart Interstitial fluid Small branch vessels In each organ Blood Dorsal vessel (main heart) Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels (b) A closed circulatory system(a) An open circulatory system Tubular heart Pores
Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems  Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, often called the cardiovascularsystem  The three main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries
 Arteries branch into arterioles and carry blood to capillaries  Networks of capillaries called capillary beds are the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid  Venules converge into veins and return blood from capillaries to the heart  Vertebrate hearts contain two or more chambers  Blood enters through an atriumand is pumped out through a ventricle
Sing le Circulatio n  Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have single circulation with a two-chambered heart  In single circulation, blood leaving the heart passes through two capillary beds before returning
Fig. 42-4 Artery Ventricle Atrium Heart Vein Systemic capillaries Systemic circulation Gill circulation Gill capillaries
Do uble Circulatio n  Amphibian, reptiles, and mammals have double circulation  Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart
Fig. 42-5 Amphibians Lung and skin capillaries Pulmocutaneous circuit Atrium(A) Ventricle (V) Atrium(A) Systemic circuit Right Left Systemic capillaries Reptiles (Except Birds) Lung capillaries Pulmonary circuit Right systemic aorta Right Left Left systemic aorta Systemic capillaries A A VV Systemic capillaries Pulmonary circuit Systemic circuit Right Left A A VV Lung capillaries Mammals and Birds
 In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs  In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs and skin  Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit  Double circulation maintains higher blood pressure in the organs than does single circulation
Adaptatio ns o f Do uble Circulato ry Syste m s  Hearts vary in different vertebrate groups Amphibians  Frogs and other amphibians have a three- chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle  The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery that splits the ventricle’s output into the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic circuit  Underwater, blood flow to the lungs is nearly shut off
Reptiles (Except Birds)  Turtles, snakes, and lizards have a three- chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle  In alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians a septum divides the ventricle  Reptiles have double circulation, with a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a systemic circuit
Mammals and Birds  Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles  The left side of the heart pumps and receives only oxygen-rich blood, while the right side receives and pumps only oxygen-poor blood  Mammals and birds are endotherms and require more O2 than ectotherms
Mammalian Transport  The mammalian cardiovascular system meets the body’s continuous demand for O2  Blood begins its flow with the right ventricle pumping blood to the lungs  In the lungs, the blood loads O2 and unloads CO2  Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped through the aorta to the body tissues by the left ventricle  The aorta provides blood to the heart through
 Blood returns to the heart through the superior vena cava (blood from head, neck, and forelimbs) and inferior vena cava (blood from trunk and hind limbs)  The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava flow into the right atrium
Fig. 42-6 Superior vena cava Pulmonary artery Capillaries of right lung 3 7 3 8 9 2 4 11 5 1 10 Aorta Pulmonary vein Right atrium Right ventricle Inferior vena cava Capillaries of abdominal organs and hind limbs Pulmonary vein Left atrium Left ventricle Aorta Capillaries of left lung Pulmonary artery Capillaries of head and forelimbs
The Mammalian Heart: AClo se r Lo o k  A closer look at the mammalian heart provides a better understanding of double circulation
Fig. 42-7 Pulmonary artery Right atrium Semilunar valve Atrioventricular valve Right ventricle Left ventricle Atrioventricular valve Left atrium Semilunar valve Pulmonary artery Aorta
Fig. 42-8-1 Semilunar valves closed 0.4 sec AV valves open Atrial and ventricular diastole 1
Fig. 42-8-2 Semilunar valves closed 0.4 sec AV valves open Atrial and ventricular diastole 1 2 0.1 sec Atrial systole; ventricular diastole
Fig. 42-8 Semilunar valves closed 0.4 sec AV valves open Atrial and ventricular diastole 1 2 0.1 sec Atrial systole; ventricular diastole 3 0.3 sec Semilunar valves open AV valves closed Ventricularsystole; atrial diastole
Animation
 The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute  The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped in a single contraction  The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume
 Four valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart  The atrioventricular(AV) valves separate each atrium and ventricle  The semilunarvalves control blood flow to the aorta and the pulmonary artery  The “lub-dup” sound of a heart beat is caused by the recoil of blood against the AV valves (lub) then against the semilunar (dup) valves  Backflow of blood through a defective valve causes a heart murmur
Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat  Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system  The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pace m ake r, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract  Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular(AV) node  At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract  Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle
Fig. 42-9-5 Signals spread throughout ventricles. 4 Purkinje fibers Pacemaker generates wave of signals to contract. 1 SA node (pacemaker) ECG Signals are delayed at AV node. 2 AV node Signals pass to heart apex. 3 Bundle branches Heart apex
Blood Vessel Structure and Function  The epithelial layer that lines blood vessels is called the endothelium  Capillaries have thin walls, the endothelium plus its basement membrane, to facilitate the exchange of materials  Arteries and veins have an endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue  Arteries have thicker walls than veins to accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart  In the thinner-walled veins, blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action
Fig. 42-10 Artery Vein SEM 100 µm Endothelium Artery Smooth muscle Connective tissue Capillary Basal lamina Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue Valve Vein Arteriole Venule Red blood cell Capillary 15µm
Blood Flow Velocity  Physical laws governing movement of fluids through pipes affect blood flow and blood pressure  Velocity of blood flow is slowest in the capillary beds, as a result of the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area  Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily slow for exchange of materials
Fig. 42-11 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 0 50 40 30 20 10 120 80 100 60 40 20 0 Area(cm2 )Velocity (cm/sec) Pressure (mmHg) Aorta Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins enaecavae Diastolic pressure Systolic pressure
Blood Pressure  Blood pressure is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel  In rigid vessels blood pressure is maintained; less rigid vessels deform and blood pressure is lost
Chang e s in Blo o d Pre ssure During the Cardiac Cycle  Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole; it is the highest pressure in the arteries  Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole; it is lower than systolic pressure  A pulse is the rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat
Re g ulatio n o f Blo o d Pre ssure  Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral resistance due to constriction of arterioles  Vasoconstriction is the contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole walls; it increases blood pressure  Vasodilation is the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles; it causes blood pressure to fall  Vasoconstriction and vasodilation help maintain adequate blood flow as the body’s demands
Blo o d Pre ssure and Gravity  Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart  Blood pressure for a healthy 20 year old at rest is 120 mm Hg at systole and 70 mm Hg at diastole  Fainting is caused by inadequate blood flow to the head  Animals with longer necks require a higher systolic pressure to pump blood a greater distance against gravity  Blood is moved through veins by smooth muscle contraction, skeletal muscle contraction, and expansion of the vena cava with inhalation
Fig. 42-14 Direction of blood flow in vein (toward heart) Valve (open) Skeletal muscle Valve (closed)
Capillary Function  Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity  Blood supply varies in many other sites  Two mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds:  Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel  Precapillary sphincters control flow of blood between arterioles and venules
Fig. 42-15a Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare channel Arteriole Capillaries Venule (a) Sphincters relaxed
Fig. 42-15b (b) Sphincters contracted Arteriole Venule
Fig. 42-15 Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare channel Arteriole Capillaries Venule (a) Sphincters relaxed (b) Sphincters contracted Arteriole Venule
 The critical exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries  The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end
Fig. 42-16a Body tissue Capillary Net fluid movement out INTERSTITIAL FLUID Net fluid movement in Direction of blood flow
Fig. 42-16b Blood pressure Inward flow Outward flow Osmotic pressure Arterial end of capillary Venous end Pressure
55 Capillary Exchange Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. venule arteriole water oxygen glucose salt water wastes osmotic pressure blood pressure to heartfromheart Arterial end Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure. Net pressure out. amino acids carbon dioxide Venous end Osmotic pressure is higher than blood pressure. Net pressure in. plasma protein smooth muscle fiber Tissue fluid
Fig. 42-16 Body tissue Capillary INTERSTITIAL FLUID Net fluid movement out Direction of blood flow Net fluid movement in Blood pressure Inward flow Outward flow Osmotic pressure Arterial end of capillary Venous end Pressure
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System  The lymphatic systemreturns fluid that leaks out in the capillary beds  This system aids in body defense  Fluid, called lymph, reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system  The lymphatic system drains into veins in the neck  Lymph nodes are organs that filter lymph and play an important role in the body’s defense  Edema is swelling caused by disruptions in the
Blood Composition and Function  In invertebrates with open circulation, blood (hemolymph) is not different from interstitial fluid  Blood in the circulatory systems of vertebrates is a specialized connective tissue  Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma  The cellular elements occupy about 45% of the volume of blood
Blood: Homeostasis Functions  Transports substances to and from capillaries for exchange with tissue fluid  Guards against pathogen invasion  Regulates body temperature  Buffers body pH  Maintain osmotic pressure  Clots prevent blood/fluid loss
Fig. 42-17 Plasma 55% Constituent Majorfunctions Water Solvent for carrying other substances Ions (blood electrolytes) Osmotic balance, pHbuffering, and regulation of membrane permeability Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Chloride Bicarbonate Osmotic balance pHbuffering Clotting Defense Plasma proteins Albumin Fibrinogen Immunoglobulins (antibodies) Substances transported by blood Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins) Waste products of metabolism Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Hormones Separated blood elements Cellularelements 45% Cell type FunctionsNumber perµL (mm3 ) of blood Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide Leukocytes (white blood cells) 5,000–10,000 Defense and immunity Basophil Neutrophil Eosinophil Lymphocyte Monocyte Platelets Blood clotting250,000– 400,000
61 Composition of Blood Blood Plasma 46-63% Formed Elements 37-54% Plasma Protein 7% Water 92% Other Solutes 1% Platelets RBC 99.9%WBC Albumin Fibrinogen Globulin Regulatory Proteins Eg. Electrolytes Monocytes Basophils Eosinophils Neatrophils Lymphocytes
Plasm a  Blood plasma is about 90% water  Among its solutes are inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, sometimes called electrolytes  Another important class of solutes is the plasma proteins, which influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, and viscosity  Various plasma proteins function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting
Ce llular Ele m e nts  Suspended in blood plasma are two types of cells:  Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen  White blood cells (leukocytes) function in defense  Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in clotting
 Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are by far the most numerous blood cells  They transport oxygen throughout the body  They contain hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that transports oxygen Erythrocytes
Leukocytes  There are five major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes  They function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies  They are found both in and outside of the circulatory system Platelets  Platelets are fragments of cells and function in blood clotting
Blo o d Clo tting  When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the clotting mechanism begins  A cascade of complex reactions converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot  A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a thrombus and can block blood flow
Fig. 42-18-1 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Platelet releases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky
Fig. 42-18-2 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Platelet releases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
Fig. 42-18-3 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Platelet releases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K) Prothrombin Thrombin
Collagen fibers Platelet plug Platelet releases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K) Prothrombin Thrombin Fibrinogen Fibrin 5 µm Fibrin clot Red blood cell Fig. 42-18-4
Ste m Ce lls and the Re place m e nt o f Ce llular Ele m e nts  The cellular elements of blood wear out and are replaced constantly throughout a person’s life  Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets all develop from a common source of stemcells in the red marrow of bones  The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates erythrocyte production when oxygen delivery is low
Fig. 42-19 Stemcells (in bone marrow) Myeloid stemcells Lymphoid stemcells Lymphocytes Bcells T cells Erythrocytes Platelets Neutrophils Basophils Eosinophils Monocytes
73 Blood Type  Determined by the presence or absence of surface antigens (agglutinogens)  Antigens A, B and Rh (D)  Antibodies in the plasma (agglutinins)  Cross-reactions occur when antigens meet antibodies
74 Blood Type
75 No Agglutination Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. No agglutination no binding 500× red blood cell antigen no clumping anti-Bantibody of type A recipient Type A blood of donor
76 Agglutination Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Agglutination binding 500× clumping antigen Type A blood of donor anti- A antibody of type Brecipient
77 Blood Type  During pregnancy, if the mother is Rh negative and the father is Rh positive, the child may be Rh positive.  Rh-positive red blood cells may leak across the placenta  The mother will produce anti-Rh antibodies.  Antibodies may attack the embryo in a subsequent pregnancy
Cardiovascular Disease  Cardiovascular diseases are disorders of the heart and the blood vessels  They account for more than half the deaths in the United States  One type of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, is caused by the buildup of plaque deposits within arteries
Fig. 42-20 Connective tissue Smooth muscle Endothelium Plaque (a) Normal artery (b) Partly clogged artery50 µm 250 µm
He art Attacks and Stro ke  A heart attackis the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries  A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
Tre atm e nt and Diag no sis o f Cardio vascular Dise ase  Cholesterol is a major contributor to atherosclerosis  Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) are associated with plaque formation; these are “bad cholesterol”  High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) reduce the deposition of cholesterol; these are “good cholesterol”  The proportion of LDL relative to HDL can be decreased by exercise, not smoking, and avoiding foods with trans fats
 Hypertension, or high blood pressure, promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke  Hypertension can be reduced by dietary changes, exercise, and/or medication
You should now be able to: 1. Compare and contrast open and closed circulatory systems 2. Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds 3. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each 4. Trace the path of a red blood cell through the human heart, pulmonary circuit, and systemic circuit
5. Define cardiac cycle and explain the role of the sinoatrial node 6. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their function 7. Define blood pressure and cardiac output and describe two factors that influence each 8. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across the capillary walls
9. Describe the role played by the lymphatic system in relation to the circulatory system 10. Describe the function of erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, fibrin 11. Distinguish between a heart attack and stroke
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Which of the following is the main trait of insects that allows them to succeed when they have open circulatory systems, not closed? a. Open systems require less energy for pumping blood (hemolymph). b. Another system, not the circulatory system, carries O2 to cells. c. They have close regulation on distribution of blood to different organs. d. Their rigid exoskeleton helps deflect blood back to the heart. e. Body fluids can move freely between vessels and interstitial spaces.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. What is the adaptive advantage of having a double circulation system and three- chambered heart, as found in amphibians, over the single circuit and two-chambered heart of fish? a. There can be capillary beds in both the respiratory organ and body systems. b. The additional chamber increases the speed of blood flow to the respiratory organ. c. Oxygenated blood can return to the heart for additional pumping before going to systemic flow. d. Oxygenated blood is kept completely separate from deoxygenated blood in the heart. e. Because amphibians are higher vertebrates than fish, they have a more advanced heart.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. What attributes of specialized atria cells account for two specialized heart features: their spontaneous contraction and the contraction of the two atria in unison? a. Autorhythmic pacemaker cells account for both features. b. Gap junctions account for both features. c. External input accounts for both features. d. Autorhythmic pacemaker cells account for the first and gap junctions for the second. e. Gap junctions account for the first and autorhythmic pacemaker cells for the second.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Tell- Tale Heart,” a murder victim’s heart continued to beat after it was removed from the body. What feature of the heartbeat is the fact behind this fiction? a. Heart pacemaker cells contract spontaneously, requiring no input. b. Nerves controlling heartbeat fire spontaneously, requiring no input. c. Hormones controlling heartbeat are released spontaneously. d. Powerful ventricle contractions are spontaneous, requiring no input. e. Pulsing of blood in the heart chambers is spontaneous, maintaining the heartbeat.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Which combination explains the fluid exchange between blood and interstitial fluid as blood is entering and leaving a capillary? a. Fluid pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, then pulls it back into the blood at the venous end. b. Osmotic pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, then pulls it back at the venous end. c. Fluid pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, and osmotic pressure pulls it back in at the venous end of the capillary. d. Osmotic pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, and fluid pressure pulls it back in at the venous end of the capillary.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. In response to a period of low O2 in circulating blood, the kidney secretes the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates erythrocyte production. This system involves a negative feedback control because a. when the EPO level rises above a certain point, the kidney stops producing it. b. when the EPO level rises above a certain point, the kidney makes much more of it. c. when the O2 level in tissues falls to a normal level, the kidney stops producing EPO. d. when the O2 level in tissues rises to a normal level, the kidney stops producing EPO. e. when the O2 level in tissues rises to a normal level, the kidney makes much more EPO.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. advantage of a capillary system with counter- current flow over a system with concurrent flow? a. More diffusion occurs at the beginning of capillary flow than midway through the capillary. b. More diffusion occurs at the end of capillary flow than midway through the capillary. c. At each point in the capillary is a concentration gradient that promotes diffusion. d. At each point in the capillary, the walls are thin to promote diffusion. e. Counter-current systems provide greater surface area for diffusion.
Reiber C. L. & McGaw I. J. (2009). "A Review of the "Open" and "Closed" Circulatory Systems: New Terminology for Complex Invertebrate Circulatory Systems in Light of Current Findings". International Journal of Zoology 2009: 8 pages. doi:10.1155/2009/301284. Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters. Adv Physiol Educ. 2012 Jun;36(2):77–82. Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus (1546 description of the Pulmonary Circulation)

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Transport systems in animals

  • 1.
  • 2.
    Outline  Circulatory Systems Open and Closed  Single and Double  Adaptations  Mammalian Transport System  Cardiac Cycle  Blood Flow and Pressure  Capillary Function and Exchange  Blood Composition and Function  Cardiovascular Disorders
  • 3.
    Overview: Transport andExchange  Every organism must exchange materials with its environment  Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level  In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur directly with the environment  For most cells making up multicellular organisms, direct exchange with the environment is not possible  Gills are an example of a specialized exchange system in animals  Internal transport and gas exchange are
  • 4.
  • 5.
    Circulatory systems  Insmall and/or thin animals, cells can exchange materials directly with the surrounding medium  In most animals, transport systems connect the organs of exchange with the body cells  Most complex animals have internal transport systems that circulate fluid
  • 6.
    Gastrovascular Cavities  Simpleanimals, such as cnidarians and some aquatic animals, have a body wall that is only two cells thick and that encloses a gastrovascular cavity  This cavity functions in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body  Some cnidarians, such as jellies, have elaborate gastrovascular cavities  Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity and a large surface area to volume ratio
  • 7.
  • 8.
    Fig. 42-2b The planarianDugesia, a flatworm (b) Mouth Pharynx 2 mm
  • 10.
    Open and ClosedCirculatory Systems  More complex animals have either open or closed circulatory systems  Both systems have three basic components:  A circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)  A set of tubes (blood vessels)  A muscular pump (the heart)
  • 11.
     In insects,other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system  In an open circulatory system, there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this general body fluid is more correctly called hemolymph  In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid  Closed systems are more efficient at transporting Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
  • 12.
    Fig. 42-3 Heart Hemolymph insinuses surrounding organs Heart Interstitial fluid Small branch vessels In each organ Blood Dorsal vessel (main heart) Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels (b) A closed circulatory system(a) An open circulatory system Tubular heart Pores
  • 13.
    Organization of Vertebrate CirculatorySystems  Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, often called the cardiovascularsystem  The three main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries
  • 15.
     Arteries branchinto arterioles and carry blood to capillaries  Networks of capillaries called capillary beds are the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid  Venules converge into veins and return blood from capillaries to the heart  Vertebrate hearts contain two or more chambers  Blood enters through an atriumand is pumped out through a ventricle
  • 17.
    Sing le Circulation  Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have single circulation with a two-chambered heart  In single circulation, blood leaving the heart passes through two capillary beds before returning
  • 18.
  • 19.
    Do uble Circulation  Amphibian, reptiles, and mammals have double circulation  Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart
  • 20.
    Fig. 42-5 Amphibians Lung andskin capillaries Pulmocutaneous circuit Atrium(A) Ventricle (V) Atrium(A) Systemic circuit Right Left Systemic capillaries Reptiles (Except Birds) Lung capillaries Pulmonary circuit Right systemic aorta Right Left Left systemic aorta Systemic capillaries A A VV Systemic capillaries Pulmonary circuit Systemic circuit Right Left A A VV Lung capillaries Mammals and Birds
  • 21.
     In reptilesand mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs  In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs and skin  Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit  Double circulation maintains higher blood pressure in the organs than does single circulation
  • 22.
    Adaptatio ns of Do uble Circulato ry Syste m s  Hearts vary in different vertebrate groups Amphibians  Frogs and other amphibians have a three- chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle  The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery that splits the ventricle’s output into the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic circuit  Underwater, blood flow to the lungs is nearly shut off
  • 23.
    Reptiles (Except Birds) Turtles, snakes, and lizards have a three- chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle  In alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians a septum divides the ventricle  Reptiles have double circulation, with a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a systemic circuit
  • 24.
    Mammals and Birds Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles  The left side of the heart pumps and receives only oxygen-rich blood, while the right side receives and pumps only oxygen-poor blood  Mammals and birds are endotherms and require more O2 than ectotherms
  • 25.
    Mammalian Transport  Themammalian cardiovascular system meets the body’s continuous demand for O2  Blood begins its flow with the right ventricle pumping blood to the lungs  In the lungs, the blood loads O2 and unloads CO2  Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped through the aorta to the body tissues by the left ventricle  The aorta provides blood to the heart through
  • 26.
     Blood returnsto the heart through the superior vena cava (blood from head, neck, and forelimbs) and inferior vena cava (blood from trunk and hind limbs)  The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava flow into the right atrium
  • 27.
    Fig. 42-6 Superior vena cava Pulmonary artery Capillaries ofright lung 3 7 3 8 9 2 4 11 5 1 10 Aorta Pulmonary vein Right atrium Right ventricle Inferior vena cava Capillaries of abdominal organs and hind limbs Pulmonary vein Left atrium Left ventricle Aorta Capillaries of left lung Pulmonary artery Capillaries of head and forelimbs
  • 28.
    The Mammalian Heart:AClo se r Lo o k  A closer look at the mammalian heart provides a better understanding of double circulation
  • 29.
  • 31.
  • 32.
    Fig. 42-8-2 Semilunar valves closed 0.4 sec AV valves open Atrialand ventricular diastole 1 2 0.1 sec Atrial systole; ventricular diastole
  • 33.
    Fig. 42-8 Semilunar valves closed 0.4 sec AV valves open Atrialand ventricular diastole 1 2 0.1 sec Atrial systole; ventricular diastole 3 0.3 sec Semilunar valves open AV valves closed Ventricularsystole; atrial diastole
  • 34.
  • 35.
     The heartrate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute  The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped in a single contraction  The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume
  • 36.
     Four valvesprevent backflow of blood in the heart  The atrioventricular(AV) valves separate each atrium and ventricle  The semilunarvalves control blood flow to the aorta and the pulmonary artery  The “lub-dup” sound of a heart beat is caused by the recoil of blood against the AV valves (lub) then against the semilunar (dup) valves  Backflow of blood through a defective valve causes a heart murmur
  • 37.
    Maintaining the Heart’sRhythmic Beat  Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system  The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pace m ake r, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract  Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular(AV) node  At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract  Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle
  • 38.
    Fig. 42-9-5 Signals spread throughout ventricles. 4 Purkinje fibers Pacemaker generateswave of signals to contract. 1 SA node (pacemaker) ECG Signals are delayed at AV node. 2 AV node Signals pass to heart apex. 3 Bundle branches Heart apex
  • 39.
    Blood Vessel Structureand Function  The epithelial layer that lines blood vessels is called the endothelium  Capillaries have thin walls, the endothelium plus its basement membrane, to facilitate the exchange of materials  Arteries and veins have an endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue  Arteries have thicker walls than veins to accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart  In the thinner-walled veins, blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action
  • 40.
    Fig. 42-10 Artery Vein SEM 100µm Endothelium Artery Smooth muscle Connective tissue Capillary Basal lamina Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue Valve Vein Arteriole Venule Red blood cell Capillary 15µm
  • 41.
    Blood Flow Velocity Physical laws governing movement of fluids through pipes affect blood flow and blood pressure  Velocity of blood flow is slowest in the capillary beds, as a result of the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area  Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily slow for exchange of materials
  • 42.
  • 43.
    Blood Pressure  Bloodpressure is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel  In rigid vessels blood pressure is maintained; less rigid vessels deform and blood pressure is lost
  • 44.
    Chang e sin Blo o d Pre ssure During the Cardiac Cycle  Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole; it is the highest pressure in the arteries  Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole; it is lower than systolic pressure  A pulse is the rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat
  • 45.
    Re g ulation o f Blo o d Pre ssure  Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral resistance due to constriction of arterioles  Vasoconstriction is the contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole walls; it increases blood pressure  Vasodilation is the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles; it causes blood pressure to fall  Vasoconstriction and vasodilation help maintain adequate blood flow as the body’s demands
  • 46.
    Blo o dPre ssure and Gravity  Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart  Blood pressure for a healthy 20 year old at rest is 120 mm Hg at systole and 70 mm Hg at diastole  Fainting is caused by inadequate blood flow to the head  Animals with longer necks require a higher systolic pressure to pump blood a greater distance against gravity  Blood is moved through veins by smooth muscle contraction, skeletal muscle contraction, and expansion of the vena cava with inhalation
  • 47.
    Fig. 42-14 Direction ofblood flow in vein (toward heart) Valve (open) Skeletal muscle Valve (closed)
  • 48.
    Capillary Function  Capillariesin major organs are usually filled to capacity  Blood supply varies in many other sites  Two mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds:  Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel  Precapillary sphincters control flow of blood between arterioles and venules
  • 49.
    Fig. 42-15a Precapillary sphinctersThoroughfare channel Arteriole Capillaries Venule (a) Sphincters relaxed
  • 50.
    Fig. 42-15b (b) Sphincterscontracted Arteriole Venule
  • 51.
    Fig. 42-15 Precapillary sphinctersThoroughfare channel Arteriole Capillaries Venule (a) Sphincters relaxed (b) Sphincters contracted Arteriole Venule
  • 52.
     The criticalexchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries  The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end
  • 53.
    Fig. 42-16a Body tissue Capillary Netfluid movement out INTERSTITIAL FLUID Net fluid movement in Direction of blood flow
  • 54.
    Fig. 42-16b Blood pressure Inwardflow Outward flow Osmotic pressure Arterial end of capillary Venous end Pressure
  • 55.
    55 Capillary Exchange Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. venule arteriole water oxygen glucose salt water wastes osmotic pressure blood pressure to heartfromheart Arterial end Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure. Net pressure out. amino acids carbon dioxide Venous end Osmotic pressure is higher than blood pressure. Net pressure in. plasma protein smooth muscle fiber Tissue fluid
  • 56.
    Fig. 42-16 Body tissue Capillary INTERSTITIALFLUID Net fluid movement out Direction of blood flow Net fluid movement in Blood pressure Inward flow Outward flow Osmotic pressure Arterial end of capillary Venous end Pressure
  • 57.
    Fluid Return bythe Lymphatic System  The lymphatic systemreturns fluid that leaks out in the capillary beds  This system aids in body defense  Fluid, called lymph, reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system  The lymphatic system drains into veins in the neck  Lymph nodes are organs that filter lymph and play an important role in the body’s defense  Edema is swelling caused by disruptions in the
  • 58.
    Blood Composition andFunction  In invertebrates with open circulation, blood (hemolymph) is not different from interstitial fluid  Blood in the circulatory systems of vertebrates is a specialized connective tissue  Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma  The cellular elements occupy about 45% of the volume of blood
  • 59.
    Blood: Homeostasis Functions Transports substances to and from capillaries for exchange with tissue fluid  Guards against pathogen invasion  Regulates body temperature  Buffers body pH  Maintain osmotic pressure  Clots prevent blood/fluid loss
  • 60.
    Fig. 42-17 Plasma 55% ConstituentMajorfunctions Water Solvent for carrying other substances Ions (blood electrolytes) Osmotic balance, pHbuffering, and regulation of membrane permeability Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Chloride Bicarbonate Osmotic balance pHbuffering Clotting Defense Plasma proteins Albumin Fibrinogen Immunoglobulins (antibodies) Substances transported by blood Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins) Waste products of metabolism Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Hormones Separated blood elements Cellularelements 45% Cell type FunctionsNumber perµL (mm3 ) of blood Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide Leukocytes (white blood cells) 5,000–10,000 Defense and immunity Basophil Neutrophil Eosinophil Lymphocyte Monocyte Platelets Blood clotting250,000– 400,000
  • 61.
    61 Composition of Blood Blood Plasma46-63% Formed Elements 37-54% Plasma Protein 7% Water 92% Other Solutes 1% Platelets RBC 99.9%WBC Albumin Fibrinogen Globulin Regulatory Proteins Eg. Electrolytes Monocytes Basophils Eosinophils Neatrophils Lymphocytes
  • 62.
    Plasm a  Bloodplasma is about 90% water  Among its solutes are inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, sometimes called electrolytes  Another important class of solutes is the plasma proteins, which influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, and viscosity  Various plasma proteins function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting
  • 63.
    Ce llular Elem e nts  Suspended in blood plasma are two types of cells:  Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen  White blood cells (leukocytes) function in defense  Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in clotting
  • 64.
     Red bloodcells, or erythrocytes, are by far the most numerous blood cells  They transport oxygen throughout the body  They contain hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that transports oxygen Erythrocytes
  • 65.
    Leukocytes  There arefive major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes  They function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies  They are found both in and outside of the circulatory system Platelets  Platelets are fragments of cells and function in blood clotting
  • 66.
    Blo o dClo tting  When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the clotting mechanism begins  A cascade of complex reactions converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot  A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a thrombus and can block blood flow
  • 67.
    Fig. 42-18-1 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Plateletreleases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky
  • 68.
    Fig. 42-18-2 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Plateletreleases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
  • 69.
    Fig. 42-18-3 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Plateletreleases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K) Prothrombin Thrombin
  • 70.
    Collagen fibers Platelet plug Platelet releaseschemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K) Prothrombin Thrombin Fibrinogen Fibrin 5 µm Fibrin clot Red blood cell Fig. 42-18-4
  • 71.
    Ste m Cells and the Re place m e nt o f Ce llular Ele m e nts  The cellular elements of blood wear out and are replaced constantly throughout a person’s life  Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets all develop from a common source of stemcells in the red marrow of bones  The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates erythrocyte production when oxygen delivery is low
  • 72.
    Fig. 42-19 Stemcells (in bonemarrow) Myeloid stemcells Lymphoid stemcells Lymphocytes Bcells T cells Erythrocytes Platelets Neutrophils Basophils Eosinophils Monocytes
  • 73.
    73 Blood Type  Determinedby the presence or absence of surface antigens (agglutinogens)  Antigens A, B and Rh (D)  Antibodies in the plasma (agglutinins)  Cross-reactions occur when antigens meet antibodies
  • 74.
  • 75.
    75 No Agglutination Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. No agglutination no binding 500× red blood cell antigen no clumping anti-Bantibody of type A recipient Type A blood of donor
  • 76.
    76 Agglutination Copyright © TheMcGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Agglutination binding 500× clumping antigen Type A blood of donor anti- A antibody of type Brecipient
  • 77.
    77 Blood Type  Duringpregnancy, if the mother is Rh negative and the father is Rh positive, the child may be Rh positive.  Rh-positive red blood cells may leak across the placenta  The mother will produce anti-Rh antibodies.  Antibodies may attack the embryo in a subsequent pregnancy
  • 78.
    Cardiovascular Disease  Cardiovasculardiseases are disorders of the heart and the blood vessels  They account for more than half the deaths in the United States  One type of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, is caused by the buildup of plaque deposits within arteries
  • 79.
    Fig. 42-20 Connective tissue Smooth muscle EndotheliumPlaque (a) Normal artery (b) Partly clogged artery50 µm 250 µm
  • 80.
    He art Attacksand Stro ke  A heart attackis the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries  A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
  • 81.
    Tre atm ent and Diag no sis o f Cardio vascular Dise ase  Cholesterol is a major contributor to atherosclerosis  Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) are associated with plaque formation; these are “bad cholesterol”  High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) reduce the deposition of cholesterol; these are “good cholesterol”  The proportion of LDL relative to HDL can be decreased by exercise, not smoking, and avoiding foods with trans fats
  • 82.
     Hypertension, orhigh blood pressure, promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke  Hypertension can be reduced by dietary changes, exercise, and/or medication
  • 83.
    You should nowbe able to: 1. Compare and contrast open and closed circulatory systems 2. Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds 3. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each 4. Trace the path of a red blood cell through the human heart, pulmonary circuit, and systemic circuit
  • 84.
    5. Define cardiaccycle and explain the role of the sinoatrial node 6. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their function 7. Define blood pressure and cardiac output and describe two factors that influence each 8. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across the capillary walls
  • 85.
    9. Describe therole played by the lymphatic system in relation to the circulatory system 10. Describe the function of erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, fibrin 11. Distinguish between a heart attack and stroke
  • 86.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Which of the following is the main trait of insects that allows them to succeed when they have open circulatory systems, not closed? a. Open systems require less energy for pumping blood (hemolymph). b. Another system, not the circulatory system, carries O2 to cells. c. They have close regulation on distribution of blood to different organs. d. Their rigid exoskeleton helps deflect blood back to the heart. e. Body fluids can move freely between vessels and interstitial spaces.
  • 87.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. What is the adaptive advantage of having a double circulation system and three- chambered heart, as found in amphibians, over the single circuit and two-chambered heart of fish? a. There can be capillary beds in both the respiratory organ and body systems. b. The additional chamber increases the speed of blood flow to the respiratory organ. c. Oxygenated blood can return to the heart for additional pumping before going to systemic flow. d. Oxygenated blood is kept completely separate from deoxygenated blood in the heart. e. Because amphibians are higher vertebrates than fish, they have a more advanced heart.
  • 88.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. What attributes of specialized atria cells account for two specialized heart features: their spontaneous contraction and the contraction of the two atria in unison? a. Autorhythmic pacemaker cells account for both features. b. Gap junctions account for both features. c. External input accounts for both features. d. Autorhythmic pacemaker cells account for the first and gap junctions for the second. e. Gap junctions account for the first and autorhythmic pacemaker cells for the second.
  • 89.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Tell- Tale Heart,” a murder victim’s heart continued to beat after it was removed from the body. What feature of the heartbeat is the fact behind this fiction? a. Heart pacemaker cells contract spontaneously, requiring no input. b. Nerves controlling heartbeat fire spontaneously, requiring no input. c. Hormones controlling heartbeat are released spontaneously. d. Powerful ventricle contractions are spontaneous, requiring no input. e. Pulsing of blood in the heart chambers is spontaneous, maintaining the heartbeat.
  • 90.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Which combination explains the fluid exchange between blood and interstitial fluid as blood is entering and leaving a capillary? a. Fluid pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, then pulls it back into the blood at the venous end. b. Osmotic pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, then pulls it back at the venous end. c. Fluid pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, and osmotic pressure pulls it back in at the venous end of the capillary. d. Osmotic pressure forces fluid out of the vessel and into interstitial fluid when blood enters a capillary, and fluid pressure pulls it back in at the venous end of the capillary.
  • 91.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. In response to a period of low O2 in circulating blood, the kidney secretes the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates erythrocyte production. This system involves a negative feedback control because a. when the EPO level rises above a certain point, the kidney stops producing it. b. when the EPO level rises above a certain point, the kidney makes much more of it. c. when the O2 level in tissues falls to a normal level, the kidney stops producing EPO. d. when the O2 level in tissues rises to a normal level, the kidney stops producing EPO. e. when the O2 level in tissues rises to a normal level, the kidney makes much more EPO.
  • 92.
    Copyright © 2008Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings. advantage of a capillary system with counter- current flow over a system with concurrent flow? a. More diffusion occurs at the beginning of capillary flow than midway through the capillary. b. More diffusion occurs at the end of capillary flow than midway through the capillary. c. At each point in the capillary is a concentration gradient that promotes diffusion. d. At each point in the capillary, the walls are thin to promote diffusion. e. Counter-current systems provide greater surface area for diffusion.
  • 93.
    Reiber C. L.& McGaw I. J. (2009). "A Review of the "Open" and "Closed" Circulatory Systems: New Terminology for Complex Invertebrate Circulatory Systems in Light of Current Findings". International Journal of Zoology 2009: 8 pages. doi:10.1155/2009/301284. Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters. Adv Physiol Educ. 2012 Jun;36(2):77–82. Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus (1546 description of the Pulmonary Circulation)

Editor's Notes

  • #5 Figure 42.1 How does a feathery fringe help this animal survive?
  • #8 Figure 42.2 Internal transport in gastrovascular cavities
  • #9 Figure 42.2 Internal transport in gastrovascular cavities
  • #13 Figure 42.3 Open and closed circulatory systems
  • #19 Figure 42.4 Single circulation in fishes
  • #21 Figure 42.5 Double circulation in vertebrates
  • #28 Figure 42.6 The mammalian cardiovascular system: an overview
  • #30 Figure 42.7 The mammalian heart: a closer look Fist-sized Cone-shaped Very muscular organ (special cardiac fibers) Lies within a fluid-filled sac (the pericardium) Septum separates heart into left & right halves Each half has two chambers Upper two chambers are the atria Thin-walled Receive blood from circulation Lower two chambers are the ventricles Thick-walled Pump blood away from heart
  • #32 Figure 42.8 The cardiac cycle The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole The relaxation, or filling, phase is called diastole
  • #33 Figure 42.8 The cardiac cycle
  • #34 Figure 42.8 The cardiac cycle
  • #38 The pacemaker is influenced by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise
  • #39 Figure 42.9 The control of heart rhythm
  • #40 The physical principles that govern movement of water in plumbing systems also influence the functioning of animal circulatory systems
  • #41 Figure 42.10 The structure of blood vessels
  • #43 Figure 42.11 The interrelationship of cross-sectional area of blood vessels, blood flow velocity, and blood pressure
  • #48 Figure 42.14 Blood flow in veins
  • #50 Figure 42.15 Blood flow in capillary beds
  • #51 Figure 42.15 Blood flow in capillary beds
  • #52 Figure 42.15 Blood flow in capillary beds
  • #54 Figure 42.16 Fluid exchange between capillaries and the interstitial fluid
  • #55 Figure 42.16 Fluid exchange between capillaries and the interstitial fluid
  • #57 Figure 42.16 Fluid exchange between capillaries and the interstitial fluid
  • #61 Figure 42.17 The composition of mammalian blood Water (90–92% of plasma) Plasma proteins (7–8% of plasma) For the Discovery Video Blood, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Leukocyte Adhesion and Rolling, go to Animation and Video Files.
  • #63 Platelets Result from fragmentation of megakaryocytes Involved in coagulation Blood clot consists of: Platelets Red blood cells All entangled within fibrin threads
  • #65 Small, biconcave disks Lack a nucleus and contain hemoglobin Hemoglobin contains Four globin protein chains Each associated with an iron-containing heme Manufactured continuously in bone marrow of skull, ribs, vertebrae, and ends of long bones
  • #66 Most types larger than red blood cells Contain a nucleus and lack hemoglobin Important in inflammatory response Neutrophils enter tissue fluid and phagocytize foreign material Lymphocytes (T Cells) attack infected cells Antigens cause body to produce antibodies Platelets Result from fragmentation of megakaryocytes Involved in coagulation Blood clot consists of: Platelets Red blood cells All entangled within fibrin threads
  • #68 Figure 42.18 Blood clotting
  • #69 Figure 42.18 Blood clotting
  • #70 Figure 42.18 Blood clotting
  • #71 Figure 42.18 Blood clotting
  • #73 Figure 42.19 Differentiation of blood cells
  • #80 Figure 42.20 Atherosclerosis
  • #87 Answer: b is the most important reason, because insects have trachea, not associated with their circulatory system, to support gas exchange. Options a and d are also true. This question relates to Concept 42.1.
  • #88 Answer: c This question relates to Concept 42.1. Answer a is true about both fish and amphibians. Answers b and e are not necessarily true. Answer d is not true for three-chambered hearts.
  • #89 Answer: d This question relates to Concept 42.2. Spontaneous contraction is a property of the pacemaker cells in the SA node. Gap junctions among cardiac muscle cells enable synchronization of heart muscle firing.
  • #90 Answer: a See Concept 42.2 and Figure 42.9.
  • #91 Answer: c See Concept 42.3 and Figure 42.16.
  • #92 Answer: d Negative feedback control will restore homeostasis, and the kidney will stop producing EPO. This question applies feedback control (Concept 40.2) to blood function (Concept 42.4).
  • #93 Answer: c This question relates to Concept 42.5. A counter-current arrangement allows greater net diffusion, a steeper concentration gradient, over a more extensive range where the vessels are in contact.