The document discusses arguments for conserving biodiversity, including that nature has inherent value, many natural products have economic value, and ecosystems provide free services to humans. It also covers case studies on how conserving genetic diversity in food stocks has helped crops, and the importance of conserving biodiversity to discover drugs. The document examines criteria for designing protected areas to effectively conserve species and biodiversity.

1. Topic 3
Biodiversity and Conservation
3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity

2. Prior Considerations
• Do humans need other species? In what ways?
• Do other species only exist to be exploited by
humans?
• Do other species have a right to exist or be
protected? Does a chimpanzee have more rights
than a mosquito?
• Are your decisions based on reason, emotion or
both?
• Can you think or reasons to conserve
biodiversity/not conserve biodiversity?

3. Arguments for Conservation of Biodiversity
• Nature has inherent value
– e.g. aesthetic and cultural value
• Many natural products have economic value
– e.g. Forests provide timber and oportunities for
ecotourism
• Ecosystems provide free services to humans
– e.g. Rainforests stabilise soil and the water cycle, sequester
carbon and produce oxygen
• Ecosystems conserve biodiversity
• Undisturbed habitats are still home to many indiginous
people

4. Arguments for Conservation of Biodiversity
• Obvious reasons:
– Timber
– Drugs
– Food stocks
• Less obvious reasons:
– Environmental indicators
– Environmental services
– Scientific knowledge
– Education
– Genetic diversity
– Ecotourism
– Aesthetic value
– Human rights for indigenous
peoples
– The ethical responsibility of
human stewardship
Conserving resources with financial value

5. Case Studies – Food Stocks
• In the 1960s wheat stripe rust disease reduced
yield in the US by two thirds. Resistant genes
were introduced from a wild strain found
growing in Turkey and the crop was saved
• Maize is very vulnerable to similar diseases. A
strain was found growing in a few hectares in
Mexico with resistance to four of the seven
main maize diseases. It was also perennial

6. Case Studies - Drugs
• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin after
accidentally growing a species of mold on agar
plates and noticing bacteria didn’t grow
• The rosy periwinkle found in a Madagascan
has anti-cancer properties and had been used
to treat diabetes by indigenous people

7. Conservation vs. Preservation
• Conservation biology (anthropocentric viewpoint)
– The recognition that humans need to live within
ecosystems and interact with other species. This may
involve controlled culling, environmental management and
ecotourism
• Preservation biology (ecocentric viewpoint)
– The recognition that nature has intrinsic value which is
diminished by the presence of humans. All species should
be conserved regardless of whether they are of value to
(or harmful to) humans. Protection of ecosystems means
protection from human encroachment

8. Questions
1. In which countries are indigenous rainforest peoples
still found?
2. What are threats to these people?
3. In which ways do their views of the rainforest and its
value differ from ours’?
4. What environmental services do rainforests provide?
5. What other reasons are there to conserve the
rainforest?
6. Are you a conservationist or a preservationist? Why?

9. Conservation Organisations
• Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)
– Greenpeace
– World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
• Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs)
– United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP)
– United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
– International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN)
• Governmental Organisations (GOs)
– National Departments of the Environment
Not run, funded or
influenced by national
governments. Have no
direct influence on
national policy
Established by
international
agreements. Have some
influence over national
governments, but also
influenced by national
politics
Restricted by national
politics, but important in
bringing internatal
conventions and laws
into force

10. IGOs vs. NGOs
IGOs NGOs
Media Professional liason officers
Slick news clips and press
releases
Advertise on popular TV
Create public events
Response Slow – rely on many countries
reaching a consensus
Rapid and regular
Able to make own decisions
Constraints Constrained by different legal
requirements and diplomatic
issues
Generally unaffected by politics
Activities may be illegal in certain
situations
Political
Influence
Big – have direct access to
governments
No direct political influence but
may alter perceptions of the
voting public
Enforceability Directly influence international
agreements and laws
Rely on public pressure and have
no legal authority

11. International Conventions on
Conservation of Biodiversity
• Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species
of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)
– Published in 1973
– Driven by IUCN
• World Conservation Strategy (WCS)
– Published in 1980
– A collaboration of IUCN, UNEP and WWF
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
– Established in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit
– Agenda 21 was the discussion which centred on
biodiversity conservation and sustainable development

12. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
(in situ conservation)
• Large area better than small
• One large area better than several small ones
• Close is better than isolated
• Clumped better than spaced out to allow
dispersion and recolonisation
• Corridors preferable to no corridors to allow
migration
• Round is the best shape to reduce edge effects.
Also makes the centre of the reserve less
accessible to poachers

13. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
• Area
– In general, larger reserves are better than smaller
ones
– Of course the size of reserves are affected by
national politics or boarders (although many
national parks do cross boarders)
– The best indicator of the health of a population is
its size
– Many large reserves with similar habitats and
large populations help guard against extinction

14. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
• Edge Effects
– When we looked at
islandisation we saw that
biodiversity increases towards
the centre of an island
(fragment)
– At the edges of a fragment
there are more severe abiotic
factors, such as wind,
temperature variations,
humidity etc.
– Edges are also more subject
to colonisation by alien
species from outside the
fragment

15. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
• Shape
– Circular reserves have less circumference and
therefore fewer edge effects
– However, reserves are limited by the available
land and are not generally designed

16. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
• Corridors
– Many species are unable to cross
between fragments (e.g. Ant Bird)
– Advantages: Corridors allow movement
of organisms to new habitats, gene flow,
seasonal migration and help to prevent
populations becoming too large in one
area
– Disadvantages: Corridors may reduce
populations too much in one area. They
may allow the spread of disease or alien
species. They may allow poachers to
move more easily in the reserve. If they
are too narrow, they may become
subject to severe edge effects
themselves. They may cross land which
present new dangers to migrating
animals

17. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
• Buffer Zones
– These are managed or undisturbed areas around a reserve
that help to maintain disturbance from outside influences
– It is generally a bad idea to allow cities or agriculture to
encroach right to the edge of a park, but in some places this
does occur
Nairobi National Park, next to Nairobi City, Kenya

18. Criteria For Designing Protected Areas
• Characteristics of a successful reserve:
– Partially or completely funded and run by government
– Attract many visitors (although ecotourism must be carfully
controlled to avoid negative impacts)
– All have management programmes (although human
exclusion zones have been seen to work effectively)
– All have high profile and popular animal species (eg.
Orangutans, Bengal Tigers, Giant Pandas)

19. Evaluating the Success of a Protected Area
(Case Study)
• You should consider:
– Which species is the area designed to protect?
– Why is/are the species threatened?
– How and why has the protected area been
successful?
– What are the weaknesses (and their causes) of the
protected area?
– How have the criteria used to design protected
areas influenced the success of each one?

20. The Species-Based Approach to Conservation
(The Role of Zoos)
• Selecting species to conserve:
– Better to conserve endangered species rather than
those that are not
– Different zoos have different areas of expertise
– Can the zoo afford to support conservation projects?
– Where is the zoo located and is this important in
selecting which species it can help to conserve?
– There should be dialogue between zoos to ensure
they provide help to as many endangered species as
possible

21. The Species-Based Approach to Conservation
(The Role of Zoos)
• In situ vs ex situ conservation:
– Smaller species are easier to keep in zoos (ex situ)
– Zoos should concentrate on species threatened due to
anthropogenic factors rather than natural factors
– Species facing habitat loss often have to be kept ex situ
– The choice is often heavily influenced by local politics
– Species facing disease should be kept ex situ where possible to
ensure continuation of the population
– The choice of species to be kept ex situ in zoos is often
influenced by the attractiveness of species to the general public
(zoos are businesses after all). Money raised by exhibiting
attractive non-threatened species can be used to protect
unattractive threatened species
– Ex situ conservation should have the objectives of helping to
conserve the same species in situ

22. The Species-Based Approach to Conservation
(The Role of Zoos)
• Managing animals in zoos (‘The 5 Freedoms’):
1. Freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition
2. Freedom from discomfort
3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease
4. Freedom to express normal behaviour (suitable
space, facilities and company)
5. Freedom from fear, distress and boredom

23. The Species-Based Approach to Conservation
(The Role of Zoos)
• Managing breeding programmes in zoos:
– Can choices of mates be allowed?
– Expansion of the gene pool should be a consideration
in choosing mates (genetic compatibility)
– Artificial insemination is a possibility and gets around
the problems of shipping animals
– Birth control may have to be considered to prevent
populations getting too big for the zoo to sustain
– Females sometimes reject young, therefore keepers
may have to take offspring from their mothers
– Good design of enclosures encourages animals to
mate

24. The Species-Based Approach to Conservation
(The Role of Zoos)
• Advantages
– Education of the public
– Increased scientific
knowledge
– Controlled environment
allows us to protect animals
– Makes genetic monitoring
easier
– Captive breeding has high
reproductive success
– Higher chance of offspring
surviving to adulthood
– Species can be held while
ways to conserve their
habitat are explored
• Disadvantages
– Animals in zoos always
originate from individuals
forcibly taken from their
habitat
– Captive populations have a
small gene pool
– Captive animals (and their
offspring) may never be able
to be reintroduced to the wild
– There is an ethical argument
against keeping animals in
captivity for profit
– Not all zoos take notice of the
5 freedoms, and sometimes
become no better than
circuses

25. Questions
1. Define the terms conservation and preservation
2. Discuss the importance of international scientific collaboration in
the conservation of biodiversity
3. Discuss the importance of NGOs in working towards international
agreements
4. Explain, with examples, how conservation may by achieved
through the work of
– Legislatures
– Zoos and captive breeding
– Nature reserves
– Flagship species