The document discusses sustainability principles, emphasizing the need for sustainable development that meets present needs without compromising future generations. It outlines key concepts such as natural capital, ecosystem services, and environmental impact assessments (EIAs), highlighting their roles and challenges in assessing sustainability. Additionally, it addresses criticisms of EIAs and the importance of using environmental indicators and ecological footprints to evaluate sustainability at various scales.

1. 1.4 Sustainability
Monday, October 26, 2015
Scott Lucas
Dwight School London, 2015

2. Assessment statements
Significant ideas
• SI1.4.1 All systems can be viewed through the lens of
sustainability.
• SI1.4.2 Sustainable development meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
• SI1.4.3 Environmental indicators and ecological
footprints can be used to assess sustainability.
• SI1.4.4 Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) play
an important role in sustainable development.

3. Assessment statements
Knowledge and understanding
• U1.4.1 Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows full
natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the
ecosystems affected by their extraction and use.
• U1.4.2 Natural capital is a term used for natural resources that can produce a
sustainable natural income of goods or services.
• U1.4.3 Natural income is the yield obtained from natural resources.
• U1.4.4 Ecosystems may provide life-supporting services such as water
replenishment, flood and erosion protection, and goods such as timber,
fisheries, and agricultural crops.
• U1.4.5 Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate may be used
quantitatively as environmental indicators of sustainability. These factors can be
applied on a range of scales, from local to global. The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MA) gave a scientific appraisal of the condition and trends in the
world’s ecosystems and the services they provide using environmental
indicators, as well as the scientific basis for action to conserve and use them
sustainably.

4. Assessment statements
• U1.4.6 EIAs incorporate baseline studies before a development project is
undertaken. They assess the environmental, social and economic impacts of the
project, predicting and evaluating possible impacts and suggesting mitigation
strategies for the project. They are usually followed by an audit and continued
monitoring. Each country or region has different guidance on the use of EIAs.
[There is no expectation to explore an EIA in depth, but rather to focus on the
principles of their use.]
• U1.4.7 EIAs provide decision-makers with information in order to consider the
environmental impact of a project. There is not necessarily a requirement to
implement an EIA’s proposals, and many socio-economic factors may influence
the decisions made.
• U1.4.8 Criticisms of EIAs include: the lack of a standard practice or training for
practitioners, the lack of a clear definition of system boundaries and the lack of
inclusion of indirect impacts.
• U1.4.9 An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to
sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed
by a given population. If the EF is greater than the area available to the
population, this is an indication of unsustainability. [EFs can be used to give
students a sense of their own impact at the start of the course and are
addressed in more detail in topic 8.]

5. Assessment statements
Applications and skills
• S1.4.1 Explain the relationship between natural capital,
natural income and sustainability.
• S1.4.2 Discuss the value of ecosystem services to a
society.
• S1.4.3 Discuss how environmental indicators such as
MA can be used to evaluate the
progress of a project to increase sustainability.
• S1.4.4 Evaluate the use of EIAs.
• S1.4.5 Explain the relationship between EFs and
sustainability.

6. Assessment statements
International mindedness
• International summits and conferences aim to
produce international tools (bodies, treaties,
agreements) that address environmental issues.
• EIAs vary across national borders.

7. Vocabulary
• Baseline study: measurement of conditions existing before
development project against which subsequent changes can be
compared (adapted from Kubo et al.)
• Ecological footprint (EF): the area of land and water required to
sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being
consumed by a given population
• Environmental Impact Assessment: A systematic process to identify,
predict and evaluate the environmental, social and economic impacts
of a proposed development project in order to aid decision making
• Natural capital: natural resources that can produce a sustainable
natural income of goods or services
• Natural income: a good or service produced by a natural capital
resource that regenerates over time
• Sustainability: the use and management of resources that allow full
natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of
the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use
• Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs

8. SI1.4.1 All systems can be viewed through the lens of sustainability
SI1.4.2 Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without
comprising the ability off future generations to meet their own needs
U1.4.1 Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows
full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the
ecosystems affected by their extraction and use
• Sustainability: the use and management of resources
that allow full natural replacement of the resources
exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected
by their extraction and use
• Living within the means of nature, on the “interest”
(sustainable natural income)
• Finite amount of materials, any society that is depleting
natural capital is unsustainable, most societies are
using unsustainable; using the “interest” as well as the
“capital”
• At some point we will run out and have to deal with the
consequences

9. SI1.4.1 All systems can be viewed through the lens of sustainability
SI1.4.2 Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without
comprising the ability off future generations to meet their own needs
U1.4.1 Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows
full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the
ecosystems affected by their extraction and use
• According the UN, humanity has overshot its
sustainable level

10. U1.4.2 Natural capital is a term used for natural resources that can
produce a sustainable natural income of goods and services
U1.4.3 Natural income is the yield obtained from natural resources
• Economists define capital as what is produced by
factories, machines, etc; environmentalists define it as
follows
• Natural capital: natural resources that can produce a
sustainable natural income of goods or services
• Goods
• Forest (natural capital) provides timber (natural income)
• A shoal of fish or agricultural crop (natural capital) provides
food (natural income)
• Services (“The Five Capitals”)
• Processes: Prevent erosion, regulates climate, etc
• Sinks: absorb, neutralise or recycle wastes
• Natural income: a good or service produced by a
natural capital resource that regenerates over time

11. • Natural capital (“The Five Capitals”)
• In their extraction and use, substances taken from the
earth do not exceed the environment's capacity to
disperse, absorb, recycle or otherwise neutralise their
harmful effects (to humans and/or the environment)
• In their manufacture and use, artificial substances do
not exceed the environment's capacity to disperse,
absorb, recycle or otherwise neutralise their harmful
effects (to humans and/or the environment)
• The capacity of the environment to provide ecological
system integrity, biological diversity and productivity is
protected or enhanced

12. S1.4.1 Explain the relationship between natural
capital, natural income and sustainability.
• Natural income is a good or service produced by a
natural capital (natural resource) that regenerates
over time
• As long as we allow for full natural replacement of
the resources exploited and full recovery of the
ecosystems affected by their extraction and use it is
considered sustainable
• Simply put, as long as the harvest of natural income
doesn’t cut into the natural capital it is sustainable

13. Wackernagel and Rees

14. Why don’t things change?
• Inertia: resistance to change because it seems too
difficult
• Due to “tragedy of the commons” (4.3)
• Individuals act in their own self-interest to destroy a resource
for all
• Ex. over-fishing international waters ruins it for all
• Ex. Vehicle pollution results in more CO2, nitrogen oxides, etc
in atmosphere which affects all
• Ex. Hunting an endangered species will cause extinction but
feeds your starving family
• Hard to value environmental services; how do you
assign economic value to soil, water, clean air,
biodiversity (or valuate the loss of biodiversity)

15. S1.4.2 Discuss the value of ecosystem services to a society
U1.4.4 Ecosystems may provide life-supporting services such as
water replenishment, flood and erosion protection and goods
such as timber, fisheries and agricultural crops

16. SI1.4.3 Environmental indicators and ecological
footprints can be used to assess sustainability
• Can use lots of different indicators, ecological and
socio-economic; including air quality, water
poverty, GDP per capita, life expectancy, gender
parity, etc.
• Smaller scale = more accurate; also need a global
overview though

17. U1.4.5 Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate may be used
quantitatively as environmental indicators of sustainability. These factors can be
applied on a range of scales from local to global. The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment gave a scientific appraisal of the condition and trends in the world’s
ecosystems and the services they provide using environmental indicators, as well as
the scientific basis for action to conserve and use them sustainably.
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) started
2001 by the UN looks at how ecosystems have
changed over the last decade
• Also predicts future changes
• Four-year study released in 2005…

18. U1.4.5 Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate may be used quantitatively
as environmental indicators of sustainability. These factors can be applied on a range of scales
from local to global. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment gave a scientific appraisal of the
condition and trends in the world’s ecosystems and the services they provide using
environmental indicators, as well as the scientific basis for action to conserve and use them
sustainably.
S1.4.3 Discuss how environmental indicators can be used to evaluate the progress of a project
to increase sustainability, eg. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

19. U1.4.9 An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to
sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being
consume by a given population. Where the EF is greater than the area
available to the population, this is an indication of unsustainability.
• Ecological footprint (EF): the area of land and
water required to sustainably provide all resources
at the rate at which they are being consumed by a
given population
• Allows direct comparison between LEDCs and
MEDCs
• Shows sustainable (footprint smaller than country –
under carrying capacity) vs
• Unsustainable lifestyles (footprint bigger than
country – exceeds carrying capacity)

21. U1.4.9 An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to
sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being
consume by a given population. Where the EF is greater than the area
available to the population, this is an indication of unsustainability.
• Global ecological footprint

26. S1.4.5 Explain the relationship
between ecological footprint (EF) and
sustainability
• Large ecological footprint shows unsustainable
lifestyle (exceeds carrying capacity)
• Small ecological footprint shows a more sustainable
lifestyle (under carrying capacity)

27. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
• What is an EIA?
• A systematic process to identify, predict and evaluate the
environmental, social and economic impacts of a proposed
development project in order to aid decision making.
• Where did EIAs come from?
• In 1969, the US Federal government passed the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
• NEPA made a priority for Federal agencies to consider the
natural environment in any land use planning.
• Within 20 years of NEPA becoming law in the US many other
countries had also included EIAs as part of their planning
policy.

28. SI1.4.4 Environmental Impact Assessments
(EIAs) play an important role in sustainable
development
• EIAs are prepared before large development projects
proceed ex. golf course, dams, quarries, port
developments, road networks
• Need to be non-technical so people can understand
what it says
• Weighs advantages and disadvantages of the project
and alternatives
• Predicts possible impacts on habitats, species and
ecosystems
• Part of the EIA is establishing how the abiotic and biotic
community would change due to the project
• Helps developer decide if the project should go ahead
with, terminate, or modify the current plan

29. U1.4.6 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) incorporate baseline studies
before a development project is undertaken. They assess the environmental, social
and economic impacts of the project. They are usually followed by an audit and
continued monitoring. Each country of region has different guidance on the use of
EIAs.
EIA Components
1. Scoping: baseline study (identifying impacts)
2. Predicting: scale of potential impacts
3. Mitigation: limiting the effect of impacts to
acceptable limits
4. Monitoring: change during and after the
development.

30. U1.4.6 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) incorporate baseline studies
before a development project is undertaken. They assess the environmental, social
and economic impacts of the project. They are usually followed by an audit and
continued monitoring. Each country of region has different guidance on the use of
EIAs.
1. Scoping/baseline study tries to (adapted form Kubo et al.)
• Assess present environmental quality
• Identify key environmental factors, which may influence project design
(site lay-out, etc);
• Quantify possible changes to the microclimate, biodiversity, scenic and
amenity value
• Identify environmentally significant factors that could prevent project
development.
• Identify sensitive issues or areas requiring mitigation or compensation;
• Provide input data to impact prediction models; and
• Provide baseline data against which the results of future monitoring
programs can be compared.

31. U1.4.6 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) incorporate baseline studies
before a development project is undertaken. They assess the environmental, social
and economic impacts of the project. They are usually followed by an audit and
continued monitoring. Each country of region has different guidance on the use of
EIAs.
Baseline looks at
• Environmental
• Ecology
• Habitat type and
abundance – total area of
each type
• Species list – flora and
fauna
• Species diversity
• List of endangered
species
• Geology
• Land use – type and
coverage
• Soil – quality, fertility, pH
• Hydrology – volume,
discharge, flows, water quality
• Social
• Human populations
present
• Noise
• Traffic
• Visual appearance
• Health
• Economic
• Cost
• Benefit
• Jobs created

32. U1.4.6 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) incorporate baseline studies
before a development project is undertaken. They assess the environmental, social
and economic impacts of the project. They are usually followed by an audit and
continued monitoring. Each country of region has different guidance on the use of
EIAs.
2. Predicting: possible impacts on habitats, species
and ecosystems
3. Mitigation
• May lead to changes in the development to avoid
negative environmental impacts
• Limit the potential environmental impact
associated with the development
4. Monitoring: change during and after the
development

33. U1.4.7 EIAs provide decision makers with information in order
to consider the environmental impact of a project. There is not
necessarily a requirement to implement an EIA’s proposals and
many socio-economic factors may influence the decisions
made.

34. S1.4.4 Evaluate the use of EIAs
U1.4.8 Criticisms of EIAs include the lack of a standard practice or training
for practitioners, the lack of a clear definition of system boundaries and the
lack of inclusion of indirect impacts.
EIA Weaknesses
• Difficult to collect a full data set; how big an area (boundaries of
the system)? how many variables?
• EIA may be limited by the quality of the baseline study
• Often focuses on biophysical issues (often a fault of poor terms of
reference)
• Hard to quantify the costs of damaging the environment
• Hard to identify indirect impacts
• Expensive; easily hundreds of millions
• Where environment, social and economic aspects are addressed,
they are not always addressed in an integrated way – EIA reports
tend to present them as separate chapters
• EIA is a prediction; speculative due to complexity of natural
systems and uncertainty about feedback mechanisms
• This makes environmental decisions more difficult

35. S1.4.4 Evaluate the use of EIAs
U1.4.8 Criticisms of EIAs include the lack of a standard practice or training
for practitioners, the lack of a clear definition of system boundaries and the
lack of inclusion of indirect impacts.
EIA Benefits
• EIAs at least provide some analysis to change the development
plans to reduce the impact
• Argued that any improvements to the development outweighs
the uncertainty of EIAs
• EIAs improve long-term viability of many projects
• Offers alternative projects which may have more positive
outcomes
• EIAs provide an opportunity to learn from experience of similar
projects and avoid the (often high) costs of subsequently
mitigating unforeseen negative and damaging impacts.
• Depends who does the EIA and if they have any involvement with
company
• Certain countries often ignore the EIA findings or prioritize
economic concerns

36. Practice question: Outline the components of an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and justify your personal viewpoint on the value of EIAs in
the environmental decision making process. Refer to a specific EIA in your
answer. (7 marks)

37. Practice question: Outline the components of an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and justify your personal viewpoint on the value of EIAs in
the environmental decision making process. Refer to a specific EIA in your
answer. (7 marks)
EIA requires the production/evaluation of a baseline study;
analysis of baseline study and development character used to predict
environmental impact of development;
EIA also addresses mitigation of potential environmental impact associated
with development;
EIA is therefore one important tool that may be used to inform environmental
decision-making;
EIA may lead to changes in the development-avoiding negative environmental
impact;
EIA may be limited by quality of baseline study;
in certain countries the findings of the EIA are often ignored/take second place
to economic concerns;
environmental impact prediction is speculative due to the complexity of
natural systems and the uncertainty of feedback mechanisms thus making
environmental decisions more difficult;
Responses do not need to reflect a balance of values but the personal
viewpoint must be fully justified.
7 max Award [5 max] if no reference is made to a specific EIA.

38. Visit ProjectEd for more resources
https://sites.google.com/a/dwightlondon.org/projected/

39. Works Cited
• International Baccalaureate Organization. Diploma Programme
Environmental systems and societies guide. The Hague: IB Publishing
Ltd, Feb. 2015. PDF.
• Kubo, B. M., J. O. Were, and G. N. Wetang’ula. "Environmental Baseline
Studies for Geothermal Developments." (2009): n. pag. National Energy
Authority. Orkustonfnun, 22 Nov. 2009. Web. 15 Aug. 2015.
<http://www.os.is/gogn/unu-gtp-sc/UNU-GTP-SC-10-0108a.pdf>.
• Rutherford, Jill. Environmental Systems and Societies. Oxford: OUP, 2015.
Print.
• "The Five Capitals." Forum for the Future. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2015.
<https://www.forumforthefuture.org/project/five-capitals/overview>.
• Wackernagel, Mathis, and William Rees. Our Ecological Footprint:
Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society,
1996. Print.