The Trait Approach

The Trait ApproachThe Trait Approach
Theory, Application, and AssessmentTheory, Application, and Assessment

What is a trait?What is a trait?

 Is a dimension of personality used toIs a dimension of personality used to
categorize people according to the degreecategorize people according to the degree
to which they manifest a particularto which they manifest a particular
characteristic.characteristic.
Trait:Trait:

 the Four Temperantsthe Four Temperants
 based on general physiquebased on general physique
Typology Systems:Typology Systems:

 SanguineSanguine (Happy)
 MelancholicMelancholic (Unhappy)
 CholericCholeric (Temperamental)
 PhlegmaticPhlegmatic (Apathetic)
Typology Systems:Typology Systems: (4 Temperants)(4 Temperants)

 SanguineSanguine (Happy)- impulsive, pleasure-impulsive, pleasure-
seeking, sociable, charismatic.seeking, sociable, charismatic.
 MelancholicMelancholic (Unhappy)- introverted,introverted,
thoughtful, considerate.thoughtful, considerate.
 CholericCholeric (Temperamental)- ambitious,ambitious,
leader-like, has a lot of energy.leader-like, has a lot of energy.
 PhlegmaticPhlegmatic (Apathetic) – relaxed, quiet, kind.relaxed, quiet, kind.
Typology Systems:Typology Systems: (4 Temperants)(4 Temperants)

 EndomorphicEndomorphic (Obese)(Obese)
 MesomorphicMesomorphic (Muscular)(Muscular)
 EctomorphicEctomorphic (Fragile)(Fragile)
Typology Systems:Typology Systems: (Physique)(Physique)

 EndomorphicEndomorphic (Obese) –(Obese) – sociable, fun-loving,sociable, fun-loving,
love of food, relaxed, good humored.love of food, relaxed, good humored.
 MesomorphicMesomorphic (Muscular) –(Muscular) – adventurous,adventurous,
courageous, competitive, risk taker.courageous, competitive, risk taker.
 EctomorphicEctomorphic (Fragile) –(Fragile) – introverted, artistic,introverted, artistic,
private, self-counscious.private, self-counscious.

 are relatively stable over time.are relatively stable over time.
 are stable across situations.are stable across situations.
Two assumptions of trait approachTwo assumptions of trait approach
to personality:to personality:

(important) Trait Theorists:(important) Trait Theorists:
Gordon AllportGordon Allport Raymond CatellRaymond CatellHenry MurrayHenry Murray

 Born on November 11, 1897 inBorn on November 11, 1897 in
Montezuma, Indiana.Montezuma, Indiana.
 Earned his A.B degree in Philosophy &Earned his A.B degree in Philosophy &
Economics and Ph.D in Psychology fromEconomics and Ph.D in Psychology from
Harvard.Harvard.
 Known as one of the founding fathers ofKnown as one of the founding fathers of
Personality Psychology.Personality Psychology.
Gordon Allport:Gordon Allport:

 Nomothetic ApproachNomothetic Approach
 Idiographic ApproachIdiographic Approach
Gordon Allport: (2 Strategies whenGordon Allport: (2 Strategies when
investigating personality)investigating personality)

 Nomothetic ApproachNomothetic Approach ––
Researchers assume that people can be describedResearchers assume that people can be described
along a single dimension according to degree ofalong a single dimension according to degree of
certain characteristic.certain characteristic.
 Idiographic ApproachIdiographic Approach ––
Researchers identify the (best) unique combination ofResearchers identify the (best) unique combination of
traits of a single individual.traits of a single individual.
(Strategies….)(Strategies….)

 Cardinal TraitsCardinal Traits
 Central TraitsCentral Traits
 Secondary TraitsSecondary Traits
Categories of Traits:Categories of Traits:

 Cardinal TraitCardinal Trait –– a trait that dominates ana trait that dominates an
individual’s entire personality.individual’s entire personality.
 Central TraitsCentral Traits –– common traits that make up ourcommon traits that make up our
personalities.personalities.
 Secondary TraitsSecondary Traits –– are traits that are onlyare traits that are only
present under certain conditions/circumstances.present under certain conditions/circumstances.
Categories of Traits:Categories of Traits:

 Neo-Freudian Theorist.Neo-Freudian Theorist.
 Earned Ph.D in Biochemistry from Cambridge.Earned Ph.D in Biochemistry from Cambridge.
 Known for the contribution of the TAT.Known for the contribution of the TAT.
 Called his approach “Personology”.Called his approach “Personology”.
 Developed Theory of Psychogenic Needs.Developed Theory of Psychogenic Needs.
Henry Murray:Henry Murray:

 Essentially, it is the study of the personEssentially, it is the study of the person
himself.himself.
 Murray believed that “Personology is simple inMurray believed that “Personology is simple in
structure but complex in detail.”structure but complex in detail.”
 Also believed no piece of behavior could beAlso believed no piece of behavior could be
understood without taking into account theunderstood without taking into account the
fully functioning person.fully functioning person.
Personology:Personology:

 Primary NeedsPrimary Needs (viscerogenic needs)(viscerogenic needs)
 Secondary NeedsSecondary Needs (Psychogenic needs)(Psychogenic needs)
Murray divided needs into:Murray divided needs into:

 Primary NeedsPrimary Needs –– (Viscerogenic/Biological(Viscerogenic/Biological
needs) needs for food, water, air, avoidance ofneeds) needs for food, water, air, avoidance of
pain.pain.
 Secondary NeedsSecondary Needs –– Psychological needs or asPsychological needs or as
Murray called them, the “Murray called them, the “psychogenicpsychogenic” needs.” needs.
Murray divided needs into:Murray divided needs into:

Psychogenic Needs: (21)Psychogenic Needs: (21)
 AbasementAbasement
 AchievementAchievement
 AffiliationAffiliation
 AggressionAggression
 AutonomyAutonomy
 BlameavoidanceBlameavoidance
 CounteractionCounteraction
 HarmavoidanceHarmavoidance
 InfavoidanceInfavoidance
 NurturanceNurturance
 OrderOrder
 PlayPlay
 RejectionRejection
 SentienceSentience

 DefendanceDefendance
 DominanceDominance
 SexSex
 DeferenceDeference
 SuccoranceSuccorance
 UnderstadingUnderstading
 ExhibitionExhibition

1.1. AbasementAbasement –– To surrender and acceptTo surrender and accept
punishment.punishment.
2.2. AchievementAchievement –– to overcome obstacles andto overcome obstacles and
succeed.succeed.
3.3. AffiliationAffiliation –– to make associations andto make associations and
friendships.friendships.
4.4. AutonomyAutonomy –– to resist others and stand strong.to resist others and stand strong.

5.5. AggressionAggression –– to injure others.to injure others.
6.6. BlameavoidanceBlameavoidance –– to avoid blame and obeyto avoid blame and obey
the rules.the rules.
7.7. CounteractionCounteraction –– to defend honor.to defend honor.
8.8. DefendanceDefendance –– to justify actions and defendto justify actions and defend
oneself against blame or belittlement.oneself against blame or belittlement.
9.9. DeferenceDeference –– to serve and follow superior.to serve and follow superior.

10.10. DominanceDominance –– to control and lead others.to control and lead others.
11.11. ExhibitionExhibition –– to attract attention.to attract attention.
12.12. HarmavoidanceHarmavoidance –– to avoid pain.to avoid pain.
13.13. InfavoidanceInfavoidance –– to avoid failure, shame,to avoid failure, shame,
humilation.humilation.
14.14. NurturanceNurturance –– to protect the helpless.to protect the helpless.

15.15. OrderOrder – to arrange, organize and be precise.– to arrange, organize and be precise.
16.16. PlayPlay – to relieve tension, relax and have fun.– to relieve tension, relax and have fun.
17.17. RejectionRejection – to exclude another, ignore, be aloof.– to exclude another, ignore, be aloof.
18.18. SentienceSentience – to seek and enjoy sensuous– to seek and enjoy sensuous
impressionsimpressions
19.19. SexSex – to form and enjoy erotic relationship– to form and enjoy erotic relationship

20.20. SuccoranceSuccorance – to seek protection and sympathy.– to seek protection and sympathy.
21.21. UnderstandingUnderstanding – to analyze and experience, to– to analyze and experience, to
seek knowledge.seek knowledge.

 Born on March 20, 1905 in England.Born on March 20, 1905 in England.
 Earned his BS in Chemistry from KingsEarned his BS in Chemistry from Kings
College.College.
 Earned his Ph.D in Psychology fromEarned his Ph.D in Psychology from
University College.University College.
 Used the Factor Analysis of Spearman.Used the Factor Analysis of Spearman.
 Known for 16-Factor Personality Model.Known for 16-Factor Personality Model.
Raymond Cattell:Raymond Cattell:

 is a statistical technique used to findis a statistical technique used to find
major trends in large amounts of data.major trends in large amounts of data.
Factor Analysis:Factor Analysis:

 These are factors (traits) that could beThese are factors (traits) that could be
used to describe and explainused to describe and explain
individual differences.individual differences.
16 PF (Personality Factor):16 PF (Personality Factor):

 VigilanceVigilance
 AbstractednessAbstractedness
 PrivatenessPrivateness
 ApprehensionApprehension
 Openness to changeOpenness to change
 Self-RelianceSelf-Reliance
 PerfectionismPerfectionism
 TensionTension
16 PF (Personality Factors):16 PF (Personality Factors):
 WarmthWarmth
 ReasoningReasoning
 Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability
 DominanceDominance
 LivelinessLiveliness
 Rule consciousnessRule consciousness
 Social BoldnessSocial Boldness
 SensitivitySensitivity

FACTORFACTOR LOWLOW HIGHHIGH
WarmthWarmth Reserve, distant, aloofReserve, distant, aloof Easy going, participating,Easy going, participating,
ReasoningReasoning Less intelligent, unable toLess intelligent, unable to
handle abstract problemshandle abstract problems
More Intelligent, abstractMore Intelligent, abstract
thinking, fast learnerthinking, fast learner
Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability Easily upset, emotinallyEasily upset, emotinally
less stable, sensitiveless stable, sensitive
Adaptive, Mature,Adaptive, Mature,
Emotionally stableEmotionally stable
DominanceDominance Accommodating, humble,Accommodating, humble,
avoids conflictavoids conflict
Dominant, competitive,Dominant, competitive,
stubborn, bossystubborn, bossy
LivelinessLiveliness Silent, serious, restrainedSilent, serious, restrained Happy go lucky, cheerful,Happy go lucky, cheerful,
impulsiveimpulsive

FACTORFACTOR LOWLOW HIGHHIGH
Rule ConsciousnessRule Consciousness Nonconforming, disregardsNonconforming, disregards
rules, expedientrules, expedient
Rule-conscious, moralistic,Rule-conscious, moralistic,
conscientiousconscientious
Social BoldnessSocial Boldness Shy, hesitant, intimidatedShy, hesitant, intimidated Socially bold, venturesomeSocially bold, venturesome
SensitivitySensitivity Tough minded,Tough minded,
unsentimentalunsentimental
objectiveobjective
Sensitive, sentimentalSensitive, sentimental
VigilanceVigilance Trusting, unsuspecting,Trusting, unsuspecting,
acceptingaccepting
Vigilant, suspicious,Vigilant, suspicious,
distustfuldistustful
AbstractednessAbstractedness Grounded, practical, steadyGrounded, practical, steady Imaginative, impractical,Imaginative, impractical,
absent mindedabsent minded

FACTOR LOW HIGH
PrivatenessPrivateness Genuine, Open,Genuine, Open,
unpretentiousunpretentious
Private, nondisclosingPrivate, nondisclosing
ApprehensionApprehension Secure, unworriedSecure, unworried Worried, guilt proneWorried, guilt prone
Openness to changeOpenness to change Conservative, traditionalConservative, traditional Experimental, liberalExperimental, liberal
Self RelianceSelf Reliance Group orientedGroup oriented Self sufficient, resourcefulSelf sufficient, resourceful
PerfectionismPerfectionism Impulsive, uncontrolledImpulsive, uncontrolled Organized, controlledOrganized, controlled

 OOpennesspenness
 CConscientiousnessonscientiousness
 EExtraversionxtraversion
 AAgreeablenessgreeableness
 NNeuroticismeuroticism
The Big Five Dimensions ofThe Big Five Dimensions of
Personality:Personality:

 OpennessOpenness –– refers to openness to experiencerefers to openness to experience
rather than openness in an interpersonal sense.rather than openness in an interpersonal sense.
 ConscientiousnessConscientiousness –– refers to how controlledrefers to how controlled
and self-disciplined we are.and self-disciplined we are.
 ExtraversionExtraversion –– extraverts get their energy fromextraverts get their energy from
interacting with others. (interacting with others. (Opposite of introversionOpposite of introversion))

 AgreeablenessAgreeableness –– these individuals preferthese individuals prefer
cooperation than competition.cooperation than competition.
 NeuroticismNeuroticism –– refers to emotional stability of anrefers to emotional stability of an
individual.individual.

The Big 5 Characteristics:The Big 5 Characteristics:
Dimension/Factor LOW HIGH
OOpennesspenness Uncreative, Uncurious,Uncreative, Uncurious,
Down-to-earth, shies awayDown-to-earth, shies away
from “new”from “new”
Creative, Intelectually curious,
loves “new”, adventurous
CConscientiousnessonscientiousness Easygoing, Lazy, Late,Easygoing, Lazy, Late,
DisorganizedDisorganized
Disciplined, responsible,
efficient, organized
EExtraversionxtraversion Independent, quiet,Independent, quiet,
reserved, shyreserved, shy
Outgoing, active, affectionate,
sociable
AAgreeablenessgreeableness Irritable, suspicious,Irritable, suspicious,
uncooperative, ruthlessuncooperative, ruthless
Trusting, Helpful, softhearted,
cooperative
NNeuroticismeuroticism Secure, calm, self-satisfied,Secure, calm, self-satisfied,
not easily botherednot easily bothered
Worried, insecure, self-Worried, insecure, self-
pitying, moody, sensitivepitying, moody, sensitive

Criticisms/Limitations(Big 5):Criticisms/Limitations(Big 5):
 It may not accurately capture theIt may not accurately capture the
complexities and subtleties of humancomplexities and subtleties of human
personality.personality.
 Patterns do not fit well within the five-Patterns do not fit well within the five-
factor structure.factor structure.
 Model is atheoretical.Model is atheoretical.

Criticisms of Trait Approach:Criticisms of Trait Approach:
 Trait measures do not predict behaviorTrait measures do not predict behavior
well.well.
 There is little evidence for cross-There is little evidence for cross-
situational consistency.situational consistency.

Assessment: Self-ReportAssessment: Self-Report
InventoriesInventories
Self-report inventoriesSelf-report inventories – are the– are the
most widely used form ofmost widely used form of
personality assessment.personality assessment.

Minnesota MultiphasicMinnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI):Personality Inventory (MMPI):
 the prototypic self-report inventory usedthe prototypic self-report inventory used
by clinical psychologists.by clinical psychologists.
 contains 567 true-false items.contains 567 true-false items.

Problems with Self-ReportProblems with Self-Report
InventoriesInventories
 FakingFaking
 Careless and SabotageCareless and Sabotage
 Response TendenciesResponse Tendencies

Strengths and Criticisms ofStrengths and Criticisms of
the Trait Approachthe Trait Approach

StrengthsStrengths
•Unlike Freud and many Neo-Unlike Freud and many Neo-
Freudians, trait theorists used objectiveFreudians, trait theorists used objective
measures to examine their constructs.measures to examine their constructs.
•Has many practical applications.Has many practical applications.

CriticismsCriticisms
•Trait measures do not predict behaviorTrait measures do not predict behavior
well.well.
•There is little evidence for cross-There is little evidence for cross-
situational consistency.situational consistency.
•Don’t explain how traits develop.Don’t explain how traits develop.

The Trait ApproachThe Trait Approach
Relevant ResearchRelevant Research

Achievement MotivationAchievement Motivation
This brief exercise is similar to one of theThis brief exercise is similar to one of the
initial procedures developed byinitial procedures developed by
psychologists to tackle the question of whypsychologists to tackle the question of why
some people work hard and achieve in thesome people work hard and achieve in the
business world, whereas others do notbusiness world, whereas others do not
(McClelland, 1961, 1985; McClelland,(McClelland, 1961, 1985; McClelland,
Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953; Stewart,Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953; Stewart,
19821).19821).

2 Kinds of Achievement2 Kinds of Achievement
MotivationMotivation
1.1. Implicit MotiveImplicit Motive
1.1. Self-attributed or Explicit MotiveSelf-attributed or Explicit Motive

1.1. Implicit MotiveImplicit Motive – we are not aware. Might– we are not aware. Might
account for spontaneous actions.account for spontaneous actions.
1.1. Self-attributed or Explicit MotiveSelf-attributed or Explicit Motive – we can– we can
readily describe. Come into play when wereadily describe. Come into play when we
have time to ponder achievement options andhave time to ponder achievement options and
decisions.decisions.
2 Kinds of Achievement2 Kinds of Achievement
MotivationMotivation

High Achievement MotivationHigh Achievement Motivation
CharacteristicsCharacteristics
• High need achievers is that they are moderateHigh need achievers is that they are moderate
risk takers.risk takers.
• They want to succeed, but they also areThey want to succeed, but they also are
highly motivated to avoid failure.highly motivated to avoid failure.
• Strong achievement motivation are optimisticStrong achievement motivation are optimistic
that their decisions are correct and that theythat their decisions are correct and that they
will succeed (Puca & Schmalt, 2001).will succeed (Puca & Schmalt, 2001).

• People with a high need for achievementPeople with a high need for achievement
tackle their work with a lot of energy.tackle their work with a lot of energy.
• High need achievers don’t work hard atHigh need achievers don’t work hard at
everything.everything.
• High need achievers also prefer jobs that giveHigh need achievers also prefer jobs that give
them personal responsibility for outcomes.them personal responsibility for outcomes.
• They want credit for success but also areThey want credit for success but also are
willing to accept blame or failure.willing to accept blame or failure.

• High need achievers want concrete feedbackHigh need achievers want concrete feedback
about their performance (Fodor & Carver,about their performance (Fodor & Carver,
2000).2000).
• They want to find out how good they are andThey want to find out how good they are and
how they compare to others.how they compare to others.

Predicting AchievementPredicting Achievement
BehaviorBehavior
Parents can promote achievementParents can promote achievement
motivation by providing support andmotivation by providing support and
encouragement long enough to enableencouragement long enough to enable
the child to develop a sense of personalthe child to develop a sense of personal
competence, but not so long that thecompetence, but not so long that the
child is robbed of independence andchild is robbed of independence and
initiative.initiative.

• Predictably, people with a high need forPredictably, people with a high need for
achievement are more likely that others toachievement are more likely that others to
find economic prosperity (Littig & Yeracaris,find economic prosperity (Littig & Yeracaris,
1965).1965).
• Researchers also warn that a high need forResearchers also warn that a high need for
achievement can sometimes be a two-edgedachievement can sometimes be a two-edged
sword.sword.
BehaviorBehavior

• The same high level of achievementThe same high level of achievement
motivation that helps some peoplemotivation that helps some people
succeed can also interfere withsucceed can also interfere with
effective performance.effective performance.
BehaviorBehavior

Gender, Culture, andGender, Culture, and
AchievementAchievement
- Researchers suggests that many other variables- Researchers suggests that many other variables
come into play when comparing the achievementcome into play when comparing the achievement
behavior of men and women (Hyde & Kling,behavior of men and women (Hyde & Kling,
2001; Mednick & Thomas, 2008).2001; Mednick & Thomas, 2008).

• Men and women differ in how they thinkMen and women differ in how they think
about achievement (Eccles, 1985, 2005).about achievement (Eccles, 1985, 2005).
• Because of differences ofBecause of differences of gender-rolegender-role
socialization,socialization, men and women may differ onmen and women may differ on
the kinds of achievement they value andthe kinds of achievement they value and
where achievement falls among their personalwhere achievement falls among their personal
goals.goals.

• Men and women differ in the way they defineMen and women differ in the way they define
success (Gaeddert, 1985).success (Gaeddert, 1985).
• MENMEN in our society are more likely to seein our society are more likely to see
success in terms of external standards, such assuccess in terms of external standards, such as
gaining prestige or recognition forgaining prestige or recognition for
accomplishments.accomplishments.

• WOMENWOMEN are more likely to rely onare more likely to rely on
internal definitions of success, such asinternal definitions of success, such as
whether they accomplish what they setwhether they accomplish what they set
out to do.out to do.

- Researchers find that the meaning of- Researchers find that the meaning of
achievement sometimes varies as a functionachievement sometimes varies as a function
of culture (Hui, 1988; Salili, 1994).of culture (Hui, 1988; Salili, 1994).

• In the US, achievement is typicallyIn the US, achievement is typically
defined in terms of personaldefined in terms of personal
• In these cultures individual effort isIn these cultures individual effort is
rewarded and people are singled out forrewarded and people are singled out for
their success.their success.

• Americans tend to see themselves inAmericans tend to see themselves in
competition with coworkers and find thiscompetition with coworkers and find this
competition motivating.competition motivating.

• In collectivist cultures, success is more likely toIn collectivist cultures, success is more likely to
be defined in terms of cooperation and groupbe defined in terms of cooperation and group
• Workers in a collectivist culture might have aWorkers in a collectivist culture might have a
strong sense of accomplishment when they dostrong sense of accomplishment when they do
their part and the entire company reaches its goaltheir part and the entire company reaches its goal
(Niles, 1998).(Niles, 1998).
• Individual recognition is not required and is notIndividual recognition is not required and is not
needed.needed.

Concepts like achievement motivation thatConcepts like achievement motivation that
focus on the individual may not be usefulfocus on the individual may not be useful
when studying behavior in a collectivistwhen studying behavior in a collectivist
culture. Rather, new definitions forculture. Rather, new definitions for
achievement and success may be needed toachievement and success may be needed to
fully understand achievement behavior infully understand achievement behavior in
different societies.different societies.

Many psychologists are interested inMany psychologists are interested in
the explanations people generate forthe explanations people generate for
why they do well or poorly inwhy they do well or poorly in
achievement situations (Weiner, 1985,achievement situations (Weiner, 1985,
1990, 2006).1990, 2006).

AttributionsAttributions
• Determines how we feel about theDetermines how we feel about the
performance and how we perform inperformance and how we perform in
similar situations in the future.similar situations in the future.

Three Dimensions for AttributionsThree Dimensions for Attributions
Stability Stable Attributions Unstable Attributions
Good coordination Good luck
Poor math attitude Illness (such as cold)
Locus Internal Attributions External Attributions
Extra effort Easy test
Poor skills Difficult competition
Control Controllable Attributions Uncontrollable Attributions
High motivation From a wealthy family
Not enough practice Weak national economy

• Achievement is not only determined by howAchievement is not only determined by how
we account for performances after the fact,we account for performances after the fact,
but also by the goals we set for ourselves atbut also by the goals we set for ourselves at
the outset (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Kaplanthe outset (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Kaplan
& Maehr, 2007).& Maehr, 2007).
• Provide targets that individuals aspire to inProvide targets that individuals aspire to in
achievement siyuations.achievement siyuations.
Achievement GoalsAchievement Goals

Broad Categories ofBroad Categories of
Achievement GoalsAchievement Goals
1.1. Mastery GoalsMastery Goals
2.2. Performance GoalsPerformance Goals

1.1. Mastery GoalsMastery Goals – concerned with developing– concerned with developing
competence.competence.
• Students motivated by a strong mastery goalStudents motivated by a strong mastery goal
will work hard to learn the subject matter in awill work hard to learn the subject matter in a
course.course.
• SatisfactionSatisfaction comes from feeling theycomes from feeling they
understand the material and a sense ofunderstand the material and a sense of
proficiency.proficiency.

• People motivated byPeople motivated by mastery goalsmastery goals are likelyare likely
to retain the information and skills they learnto retain the information and skills they learn
longer than those driven by performancelonger than those driven by performance
goals.goals.
• People motivated byPeople motivated by mastery goalsmastery goals oftenoften
continue their interest in the material after thecontinue their interest in the material after the
recognition for achievement is gonerecognition for achievement is gone
(Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999).(Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999).

2.2. Performance GoalsPerformance Goals – concerned with– concerned with
demonstrating accomplishments to others.demonstrating accomplishments to others.
• Students motivated by strong performanceStudents motivated by strong performance
goals want to obtain a high grade, possibly thegoals want to obtain a high grade, possibly the
highest grade in class.highest grade in class.
• SatisfactionSatisfaction comes from receiving thecomes from receiving the
recognition that accompanies the achievement.recognition that accompanies the achievement.

People aren’t just motivated toPeople aren’t just motivated to
succeed. Sometimes they are moresucceed. Sometimes they are more
concerned about not feeling.concerned about not feeling.

Achievement Goal FrameworkAchievement Goal Framework
Mastery-
Approach Goal
Performance-
Approach Goal
Mastery-
Avoidance Goal
Performance-
Avoidance Goal
Definition
Valence
Positive
(Approaching Success)
Negative
(Avoiding Failure)

Type A, Hostility and HealthType A, Hostility and Health

Type A as a Personality VariableType A as a Personality Variable

Hostility and HealthHostility and Health

The Trait Approach

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