This document discusses methods for determining the influence depth or significant stressed zone of a highway embankment. It analyzes how traffic loads and embankment pressures reduce with depth below the embankment. For traffic loads, the analysis found the load transferred is not significant below a depth of 1-3 times the embankment height. For embankment pressures, it determined the significant stressed zone where 20% of pressure is reached is 2-6.2 times the embankment height, depending on embankment width and height. This provides simplified ratios that can be used to evaluate stresses, settlements, and bearing capacity of subsoil underlying highway embankments.
The document discusses the selection of asbestos-cement pipes for use in buried pressure conduits. It covers several key points:
1) Asbestos-cement pipes can withstand internal pressures up to 1.4 MPa and are unaffected by corrosion, but proper design is needed to prevent damage.
2) The Marston-Schlick combined loading theory is used to determine internal and external pressures on pipes and properly select pipe strength. This theory accounts for both internal hydrostatic pressure and external loads.
3) External loads on buried pipes include weight of backfill material and potential superimposed loads. Marston's equations are provided to calculate external load values.
Liquid limit is the water content where the soil starts to behave as a liquid. Liquid limit is measured by placing a clay sample in a standard cup and making a separation (groove) using a spatula. The cup is dropped till the separation vanishes. The water content of the soil is obtained from this sample.
This document discusses the types and components of concrete pavements. It describes concrete pavements as rigid slabs made of Portland cement that have very small deflections compared to flexible pavements. The main components are the concrete slab, granular or stabilized base and subbase, and subgrade. Joints like contraction joints, construction joints, and expansion joints are also important features. The document also examines stresses in concrete from loads, temperature changes, and other factors using theories like modulus of subgrade reaction. It provides equations to calculate stresses at critical interior, edge, and corner locations of slabs.
CHAPTER - 7 HIGHWAY II R = 666666666666.pptxRoMa665066
The document discusses traffic loading and volume factors that are important for pavement design. It covers three procedures for considering traffic loading effects: fixed traffic, fixed vehicle, and variable traffic and vehicle. The fixed vehicle procedure is most commonly used, in which traffic volumes are converted to equivalent standard axle loads. Design period, traffic volumes, and vehicle classification are also discussed as important considerations for determining design traffic loads.
Mechanical Response Analysis of Asphalt Pavement StructureIJERA Editor
This document analyzes the mechanical response of asphalt pavement structures through finite element modeling. It establishes a three-dimensional model of an asphalt pavement with multiple layers and simplifies the wheel load as a uniform circular load. The model is used to analyze how variations in surface layer modulus (E1) and thickness (H1) impact maximum shear stress (τmax) at the wheel center. Results show τmax decreases with increasing E1 and H1 values. Thinner surface layers with lower modulus are more prone to rutting under repeated loads. The analysis provides a basis for optimizing asphalt pavement designs but has limitations considering only single parameters and temperature effects.
Numerical and Analytical Solutions for Ovaling Deformation in Circular Tunnel...IDES Editor
Ovaling deformations develop when waves propagate
perpendicular to the tunnel axis. Two analytical solutions are
used for estimating the ovaling deformations and forces in
circular tunnels due to soil–structure interaction under
seismic loading. In this paper, these two closed form solutions
will be described briefly, and then a comparison between these
methods will be made by changing the ground parameters.
Differences between the results of these two methods in
calculating the magnitudes of thrust on tunnel lining are
significant. For verifying the results of these two closed form
solutions, numerical analyses were performed using finite
element code (ABAQUS program). These analyses show that
the two closed form solutions provide the same results only
for full-slip condition.
The document discusses the selection of asbestos-cement pipes for use in buried pressure conduits. It covers several key points:
1) Asbestos-cement pipes can withstand internal pressures up to 1.4 MPa and are unaffected by corrosion, but proper design is needed to prevent damage.
2) The Marston-Schlick combined loading theory is used to determine internal and external pressures on pipes and properly select pipe strength. This theory accounts for both internal hydrostatic pressure and external loads.
3) External loads on buried pipes include weight of backfill material and potential superimposed loads. Marston's equations are provided to calculate external load values.
Liquid limit is the water content where the soil starts to behave as a liquid. Liquid limit is measured by placing a clay sample in a standard cup and making a separation (groove) using a spatula. The cup is dropped till the separation vanishes. The water content of the soil is obtained from this sample.
This document discusses the types and components of concrete pavements. It describes concrete pavements as rigid slabs made of Portland cement that have very small deflections compared to flexible pavements. The main components are the concrete slab, granular or stabilized base and subbase, and subgrade. Joints like contraction joints, construction joints, and expansion joints are also important features. The document also examines stresses in concrete from loads, temperature changes, and other factors using theories like modulus of subgrade reaction. It provides equations to calculate stresses at critical interior, edge, and corner locations of slabs.
CHAPTER - 7 HIGHWAY II R = 666666666666.pptxRoMa665066
The document discusses traffic loading and volume factors that are important for pavement design. It covers three procedures for considering traffic loading effects: fixed traffic, fixed vehicle, and variable traffic and vehicle. The fixed vehicle procedure is most commonly used, in which traffic volumes are converted to equivalent standard axle loads. Design period, traffic volumes, and vehicle classification are also discussed as important considerations for determining design traffic loads.
Mechanical Response Analysis of Asphalt Pavement StructureIJERA Editor
This document analyzes the mechanical response of asphalt pavement structures through finite element modeling. It establishes a three-dimensional model of an asphalt pavement with multiple layers and simplifies the wheel load as a uniform circular load. The model is used to analyze how variations in surface layer modulus (E1) and thickness (H1) impact maximum shear stress (τmax) at the wheel center. Results show τmax decreases with increasing E1 and H1 values. Thinner surface layers with lower modulus are more prone to rutting under repeated loads. The analysis provides a basis for optimizing asphalt pavement designs but has limitations considering only single parameters and temperature effects.
Numerical and Analytical Solutions for Ovaling Deformation in Circular Tunnel...IDES Editor
Ovaling deformations develop when waves propagate
perpendicular to the tunnel axis. Two analytical solutions are
used for estimating the ovaling deformations and forces in
circular tunnels due to soil–structure interaction under
seismic loading. In this paper, these two closed form solutions
will be described briefly, and then a comparison between these
methods will be made by changing the ground parameters.
Differences between the results of these two methods in
calculating the magnitudes of thrust on tunnel lining are
significant. For verifying the results of these two closed form
solutions, numerical analyses were performed using finite
element code (ABAQUS program). These analyses show that
the two closed form solutions provide the same results only
for full-slip condition.
A Comparative Study on Enhancing the Factor of Safety for Retaining Walls Aga...IRJET Journal
This document presents a comparative study on enhancing the factor of safety for retaining walls against failure through the use of reinforcement strips in soil. It analyzes retaining wall models of varying heights using numerical calculations to compare the factor of safety against pulling out, breaking of strips, bearing capacity failure, overturning and sliding in reinforced versus unreinforced walls. The results provide knowledge on the internal and external stability of reinforced earth retaining walls. Galvanized steel strips are used as reinforcements and their inclusion is found to boost the wall's service life and safety against various failure modes through increased soil confinement.
The effect of soil improvement on foundation super structure designIAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on the effects of soil improvement on raft and folded plate foundation design. The authors used Winkler and continuum modeling methods to analyze raft foundations with and without soil strength increases below high settlement areas. They found that localized soil improvement significantly reduced settlement and allowed for reductions in foundation and superstructure material requirements like concrete and steel reinforcement. Selectively increasing soil stiffness parameters like modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) and modulus of elasticity (E) provided benefits to both flat raft and folded plate foundation designs in terms of reduced settlement, moments, and reinforcement needs.
Determining equivalent single wheel load.(ESWL) Imran Nawaz
This document discusses methods for determining equivalent single wheel loads (ESWL) and equivalent single axle loads (ESAL) for pavement design. ESWL is defined as the load from a single tire that causes the same stresses/strains as a multi-wheel load. Methods include equal stress, LCN, and FAA approaches. ESAL quantifies the effect of varying axle loads as a number of standard single axle loads. Factors like thickness and subgrade reaction are considered. Cars have minimal impact compared to trucks and buses.
Study of Structural Behaviour of Gravity Dam with Various Features of Gallery...IDES Editor
The size and shape of opening in dam causes the
stress concentration, it also causes the stress variation in the
rest of the dam cross section. The gravity method of the analysis
does not consider the size of opening and the elastic property
of dam material. Thus the objective of study is comprises of
the Finite Element Method which considers the size of
opening, elastic property of material, and stress distribution
because of geometric discontinuity in cross section of dam.
Stress concentration inside the dam increases with the opening
in dam which results in the failure of dam. Hence it is
necessary to analyses large opening inside the dam. By making
the percentage area of opening constant and varying size and
shape of opening the analysis is carried out. For this purpose
a section of Koyna Dam is considered. Dam is defined as a
plane strain element in FEM, based on geometry and loading
condition. Thus this available information specified our path
of approach to carry out 2D plane strain analysis. The results
obtained are then compared mutually to get most efficient
way of providing large opening in the gravity dam.
The document presents closed-form expressions for determining the bending moments in two directions of a rectangular two-way slab under a concentrated load uniformly distributed over a defined area. Equations (16) and (17) provide the bending moment expressions for the short and long directions, respectively, as functions of the span ratio, load area dimensions ratios, and other geometric properties. Comparisons are made between results from the proposed analysis method, Egyptian code approximate method, Pigweed's theory, and finite element analysis, showing better accuracy of the proposed method and Pigweed's theory over the Egyptian code method.
Closed-Form Expressions for Moments of Two-Way Slabs under Concentrated LoadsIOSR Journals
The document presents closed-form expressions for determining the bending moments in two directions of a rectangular two-way slab under a concentrated load uniformly distributed over a defined area. Two expressions are derived based on elastic analysis and Navier's method. The expressions relate the bending moments to factors that influence them, including the span ratio, the dimensions ratio of the loaded area, and the ratio of the short span to the parallel length of the loaded area. Comparisons are made between results from the new expressions, an approximate method in the Egyptian code ECCS 203-2007, Pigweed's theory, and finite element analysis. Significant differences are found between the code's method and finite element results, while Pigweed's theory agrees well with finite element
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
An Analytical Method for Static Earth Pressure Distribution against Rectangul...IJERA Editor
Analytical methods for computing the lateral earth pressure against tunnel is vastly used by engineers all over the
world. Conventional analytical methods compute the lateral pressure in either active or passive state while the
stress state usually falls between these two boundaries in many practical cases. Furthermore, using these
boundary coefficients lead to either overestimated or underestimated results in design. Thus, a modified method
based on the strain increment theory for calculating the lateral pressure against rectangular tunnels is presented
herein to consider the amount of lateral deformation at each depth. First, the results for different values of
overburden depth, friction angle and wall mobilized angle are investigated. Then comparative finite element
analyses were performed to examine the effectiveness of the method. According to this study, the pressure
pattern is completely nonlinear especially at the corners of tunnel lining. In fact, the pressure increases
nonlinearly to about three times of the value at top. Lateral earth pressure decreases with the increase of friction
angle which is in good agreement with finite element results. Overall, the pressure patterns derived by this
method for shallow depths (less than tunnel height) are almost the same as those computed by finite element
method.
The document provides an analysis of the slope design for an open pit operation submitted by Andrews Surface-Design LTD. West Country Minerals conducted an independent review using software like DIPS, RocLab, RocPlane, and Slide. The analysis examined potential failure mechanisms like planar, wedge, and toppling failures. It also analyzed the stability of individual benches and the overall slope. The review found that some benches would fail without support but adding tension bolts could achieve the target safety factors, particularly if higher bolt tension is used for seismic conditions. Overall, the analysis found the slope design to be stable but recommended some amendments to bolt support and further sensitivity analysis.
This document discusses the hydraulic design of the main diversion structure of a barrage. It covers sub-surface flow considerations like seepage pressure, exit gradient, and uplift forces. It also discusses surface flow conditions during floods when barrage gates are open. Analytical solutions and graphs are provided to calculate seepage pressures and exit gradient. Corrections are also described to account for factors like floor thickness, slope, and interference between sheet piles. Surface flow hydraulics involve operating barrage gates to pass floods while maintaining the pool water level.
Consolidation settlement with sand drains – analytical and numerical approachesUmed Paliwal
The document discusses analytical and numerical approaches to studying consolidation settlement of foundations built on sand drains. The analytical part reviews existing literature on settlement, structure, installation and monitoring of sand drains. Popular theories on free strain and equal strain cases with and without smear are covered. The numerical part uses PLAXIS 2D to model a drain unit cell and address the reduction in consolidation time from sand drains under varying loads, the relationship between ultimate settlement and loading, and the relationship between ultimate settlement and drain diameter.
Deformation Behaviour of Suction Caisson Foundations.pptPushkalMathna
This document summarizes a study on the horizontal load-deformation behavior of suction caisson foundations. The study used finite element modeling in ABAQUS to simulate the behavior of caisson foundations in sandy soils under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. Key findings included: (1) load capacity decreased with increased loading height and eccentricity, (2) maximum stresses occurred near the mid-depth of the caisson, and (3) stiffness degraded nonlinearly with increasing number of load cycles due to accumulated plastic strains. Parametric analyses looked at the effects of caisson diameter, soil type, and loading conditions. Conclusions focused on developing design methods for predicting load-moment interactions and capacity. Future work could consider clay soils
10 simple mathematical approach for granular fill Ahmed Ebid
This document presents a proposed mathematical approach to simulate ground deformation and soil parameter improvement from dynamic compaction. The approach uses two equations: 1) calculates ground settlement from a single tamper drop based on soil properties and compaction energy. 2) Calculates updated soil parameters based on settlement from the previous drop, allowing simulation of the compaction process. The approach is applied to four case studies and shows close agreement with measured results. It provides a simple way to design and test dynamic compaction procedures and monitor quality by comparing measured and calculated settlements.
The group analyzed a 3D concrete overpass using MSC Patran/Nastran software. They applied a distributed load of 4,000 lb/in to simulate traffic, finding a maximum stress of 3,540 psi for the test geometry. Additional geometries were also analyzed. Applying a load of 80,000 lb/in to simulate a tractor-trailer resulted in complete failure at 71,000 psi. The analysis suggests using a semicircular archway, as it had the lowest stress of around 2,750 psi due to a larger cross-sectional area.
ABAQUS simulation for consolidation of saturated soft soil in two-dimensional...IJRES Journal
1) The document simulates the consolidation of saturated soft soil in a two-dimensional finite region under shear or normal loads using ABAQUS software.
2) The results show that the final soil settlement is unaffected by boundary permeability but depends on the load and soil properties. Different boundary conditions lead to variable consolidation processes.
3) Shear loads have a greater influence on horizontal displacement, while normal loads more strongly impact vertical displacement, with orders of magnitude differences between the two load types.
The document discusses the analysis and design of retaining walls, deck slabs, and cantilever deck slabs for bridge structures. It provides an overview of the design process, including geotechnical investigations and laboratory testing to determine soil properties. It describes the design of retaining walls using lateral earth pressure theories like Rankine's method. It also covers the design of concrete slabs and cantilever slabs, and checking the stability of retaining walls against overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failure. Design codes used for highway bridge structures in India are also listed.
IMPROVING THE STRUT AND TIE METHOD BY INCLUDING THE CONCRETE SOFTENING EFFECTIAEME Publication
Strut and tie model approach evolves as one of the most useful analysis methods for shear critical structures and for other disturbed regions in concrete structures. The main objective of this research is modified the strut and tie method. As especially of the softening strut and tie method, the following work concern for determining a new factor (named-correction factor λ), and the formulation is based on the failure criterion from the Mohr Coulomb Theory for nodal zones (tension-compression stress state).
Bearing Capacity Of Foundation (Dr Naveed Ahmad )[Autosaved]-1.pptxengineerabdulrehman7
The document discusses methods for evaluating the ultimate bearing capacity (qu/u) of soil under foundation loads, including Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, Meyerhof's equation which includes a shape factor, and Hansen's method which is a further extension incorporating additional factors. The limiting shear resistance or qu/u of the soil must be sufficient to support the load from structures without shear failure or excessive settlements.
IRJET - Experimental Investigation on Behaviour of Footings Subjected to Hori...IRJET Journal
- The document reports on an experimental investigation into the behavior of circular footings subjected to horizontal loads.
- A series of laboratory load tests were conducted where parameters like depth of footing, soil type, ratio of vertical to horizontal load were varied.
- The tests found that lateral deformation decreases with increasing depth of footing and vertical load, as these factors increase confinement of the soil around the footing.
- Inclination or tilt of the footing under combined loading was also found to decrease with increased depth.
- The addition of micropiles was found to improve the lateral load-deformation behavior by decreasing lateral displacement.
TUNNELING IN HIMALAYAS WITH NATM METHOD: A SPECIAL REFERENCES TO SUNGAL TUNNE...IRJET Journal
1) The document discusses the Sungal Tunnel project in Jammu and Kashmir, India, which is being constructed using the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM).
2) NATM involves continuous monitoring during construction to adapt to changing ground conditions, and makes extensive use of shotcrete for temporary tunnel support.
3) The methodology section outlines the systematic geotechnical design process for tunnels according to Austrian guidelines, and describes the various steps of NATM tunnel construction including initial and secondary tunnel support.
STUDY THE EFFECT OF RESPONSE REDUCTION FACTOR ON RC FRAMED STRUCTUREIRJET Journal
This study examines the effect of response reduction factors (R factors) on reinforced concrete (RC) framed structures through nonlinear dynamic analysis. Three RC frame models with varying heights (4, 8, and 12 stories) were analyzed in ETABS software under different R factors ranging from 1 to 5. The results showed that displacement increased as the R factor decreased, indicating less linear behavior for lower R factors. Drift also decreased proportionally with increasing R factors from 1 to 5. Shear forces in the frames decreased with higher R factors. In general, R factors of 3 to 5 produced more satisfactory performance with less displacement and drift. The displacement variations between different building heights were consistent at different R factors. This study evaluated how R factors influence
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A Comparative Study on Enhancing the Factor of Safety for Retaining Walls Aga...IRJET Journal
This document presents a comparative study on enhancing the factor of safety for retaining walls against failure through the use of reinforcement strips in soil. It analyzes retaining wall models of varying heights using numerical calculations to compare the factor of safety against pulling out, breaking of strips, bearing capacity failure, overturning and sliding in reinforced versus unreinforced walls. The results provide knowledge on the internal and external stability of reinforced earth retaining walls. Galvanized steel strips are used as reinforcements and their inclusion is found to boost the wall's service life and safety against various failure modes through increased soil confinement.
The effect of soil improvement on foundation super structure designIAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on the effects of soil improvement on raft and folded plate foundation design. The authors used Winkler and continuum modeling methods to analyze raft foundations with and without soil strength increases below high settlement areas. They found that localized soil improvement significantly reduced settlement and allowed for reductions in foundation and superstructure material requirements like concrete and steel reinforcement. Selectively increasing soil stiffness parameters like modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) and modulus of elasticity (E) provided benefits to both flat raft and folded plate foundation designs in terms of reduced settlement, moments, and reinforcement needs.
Determining equivalent single wheel load.(ESWL) Imran Nawaz
This document discusses methods for determining equivalent single wheel loads (ESWL) and equivalent single axle loads (ESAL) for pavement design. ESWL is defined as the load from a single tire that causes the same stresses/strains as a multi-wheel load. Methods include equal stress, LCN, and FAA approaches. ESAL quantifies the effect of varying axle loads as a number of standard single axle loads. Factors like thickness and subgrade reaction are considered. Cars have minimal impact compared to trucks and buses.
Study of Structural Behaviour of Gravity Dam with Various Features of Gallery...IDES Editor
The size and shape of opening in dam causes the
stress concentration, it also causes the stress variation in the
rest of the dam cross section. The gravity method of the analysis
does not consider the size of opening and the elastic property
of dam material. Thus the objective of study is comprises of
the Finite Element Method which considers the size of
opening, elastic property of material, and stress distribution
because of geometric discontinuity in cross section of dam.
Stress concentration inside the dam increases with the opening
in dam which results in the failure of dam. Hence it is
necessary to analyses large opening inside the dam. By making
the percentage area of opening constant and varying size and
shape of opening the analysis is carried out. For this purpose
a section of Koyna Dam is considered. Dam is defined as a
plane strain element in FEM, based on geometry and loading
condition. Thus this available information specified our path
of approach to carry out 2D plane strain analysis. The results
obtained are then compared mutually to get most efficient
way of providing large opening in the gravity dam.
The document presents closed-form expressions for determining the bending moments in two directions of a rectangular two-way slab under a concentrated load uniformly distributed over a defined area. Equations (16) and (17) provide the bending moment expressions for the short and long directions, respectively, as functions of the span ratio, load area dimensions ratios, and other geometric properties. Comparisons are made between results from the proposed analysis method, Egyptian code approximate method, Pigweed's theory, and finite element analysis, showing better accuracy of the proposed method and Pigweed's theory over the Egyptian code method.
Closed-Form Expressions for Moments of Two-Way Slabs under Concentrated LoadsIOSR Journals
The document presents closed-form expressions for determining the bending moments in two directions of a rectangular two-way slab under a concentrated load uniformly distributed over a defined area. Two expressions are derived based on elastic analysis and Navier's method. The expressions relate the bending moments to factors that influence them, including the span ratio, the dimensions ratio of the loaded area, and the ratio of the short span to the parallel length of the loaded area. Comparisons are made between results from the new expressions, an approximate method in the Egyptian code ECCS 203-2007, Pigweed's theory, and finite element analysis. Significant differences are found between the code's method and finite element results, while Pigweed's theory agrees well with finite element
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
An Analytical Method for Static Earth Pressure Distribution against Rectangul...IJERA Editor
Analytical methods for computing the lateral earth pressure against tunnel is vastly used by engineers all over the
world. Conventional analytical methods compute the lateral pressure in either active or passive state while the
stress state usually falls between these two boundaries in many practical cases. Furthermore, using these
boundary coefficients lead to either overestimated or underestimated results in design. Thus, a modified method
based on the strain increment theory for calculating the lateral pressure against rectangular tunnels is presented
herein to consider the amount of lateral deformation at each depth. First, the results for different values of
overburden depth, friction angle and wall mobilized angle are investigated. Then comparative finite element
analyses were performed to examine the effectiveness of the method. According to this study, the pressure
pattern is completely nonlinear especially at the corners of tunnel lining. In fact, the pressure increases
nonlinearly to about three times of the value at top. Lateral earth pressure decreases with the increase of friction
angle which is in good agreement with finite element results. Overall, the pressure patterns derived by this
method for shallow depths (less than tunnel height) are almost the same as those computed by finite element
method.
The document provides an analysis of the slope design for an open pit operation submitted by Andrews Surface-Design LTD. West Country Minerals conducted an independent review using software like DIPS, RocLab, RocPlane, and Slide. The analysis examined potential failure mechanisms like planar, wedge, and toppling failures. It also analyzed the stability of individual benches and the overall slope. The review found that some benches would fail without support but adding tension bolts could achieve the target safety factors, particularly if higher bolt tension is used for seismic conditions. Overall, the analysis found the slope design to be stable but recommended some amendments to bolt support and further sensitivity analysis.
This document discusses the hydraulic design of the main diversion structure of a barrage. It covers sub-surface flow considerations like seepage pressure, exit gradient, and uplift forces. It also discusses surface flow conditions during floods when barrage gates are open. Analytical solutions and graphs are provided to calculate seepage pressures and exit gradient. Corrections are also described to account for factors like floor thickness, slope, and interference between sheet piles. Surface flow hydraulics involve operating barrage gates to pass floods while maintaining the pool water level.
Consolidation settlement with sand drains – analytical and numerical approachesUmed Paliwal
The document discusses analytical and numerical approaches to studying consolidation settlement of foundations built on sand drains. The analytical part reviews existing literature on settlement, structure, installation and monitoring of sand drains. Popular theories on free strain and equal strain cases with and without smear are covered. The numerical part uses PLAXIS 2D to model a drain unit cell and address the reduction in consolidation time from sand drains under varying loads, the relationship between ultimate settlement and loading, and the relationship between ultimate settlement and drain diameter.
Deformation Behaviour of Suction Caisson Foundations.pptPushkalMathna
This document summarizes a study on the horizontal load-deformation behavior of suction caisson foundations. The study used finite element modeling in ABAQUS to simulate the behavior of caisson foundations in sandy soils under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. Key findings included: (1) load capacity decreased with increased loading height and eccentricity, (2) maximum stresses occurred near the mid-depth of the caisson, and (3) stiffness degraded nonlinearly with increasing number of load cycles due to accumulated plastic strains. Parametric analyses looked at the effects of caisson diameter, soil type, and loading conditions. Conclusions focused on developing design methods for predicting load-moment interactions and capacity. Future work could consider clay soils
10 simple mathematical approach for granular fill Ahmed Ebid
This document presents a proposed mathematical approach to simulate ground deformation and soil parameter improvement from dynamic compaction. The approach uses two equations: 1) calculates ground settlement from a single tamper drop based on soil properties and compaction energy. 2) Calculates updated soil parameters based on settlement from the previous drop, allowing simulation of the compaction process. The approach is applied to four case studies and shows close agreement with measured results. It provides a simple way to design and test dynamic compaction procedures and monitor quality by comparing measured and calculated settlements.
The group analyzed a 3D concrete overpass using MSC Patran/Nastran software. They applied a distributed load of 4,000 lb/in to simulate traffic, finding a maximum stress of 3,540 psi for the test geometry. Additional geometries were also analyzed. Applying a load of 80,000 lb/in to simulate a tractor-trailer resulted in complete failure at 71,000 psi. The analysis suggests using a semicircular archway, as it had the lowest stress of around 2,750 psi due to a larger cross-sectional area.
ABAQUS simulation for consolidation of saturated soft soil in two-dimensional...IJRES Journal
1) The document simulates the consolidation of saturated soft soil in a two-dimensional finite region under shear or normal loads using ABAQUS software.
2) The results show that the final soil settlement is unaffected by boundary permeability but depends on the load and soil properties. Different boundary conditions lead to variable consolidation processes.
3) Shear loads have a greater influence on horizontal displacement, while normal loads more strongly impact vertical displacement, with orders of magnitude differences between the two load types.
The document discusses the analysis and design of retaining walls, deck slabs, and cantilever deck slabs for bridge structures. It provides an overview of the design process, including geotechnical investigations and laboratory testing to determine soil properties. It describes the design of retaining walls using lateral earth pressure theories like Rankine's method. It also covers the design of concrete slabs and cantilever slabs, and checking the stability of retaining walls against overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failure. Design codes used for highway bridge structures in India are also listed.
IMPROVING THE STRUT AND TIE METHOD BY INCLUDING THE CONCRETE SOFTENING EFFECTIAEME Publication
Strut and tie model approach evolves as one of the most useful analysis methods for shear critical structures and for other disturbed regions in concrete structures. The main objective of this research is modified the strut and tie method. As especially of the softening strut and tie method, the following work concern for determining a new factor (named-correction factor λ), and the formulation is based on the failure criterion from the Mohr Coulomb Theory for nodal zones (tension-compression stress state).
Bearing Capacity Of Foundation (Dr Naveed Ahmad )[Autosaved]-1.pptxengineerabdulrehman7
The document discusses methods for evaluating the ultimate bearing capacity (qu/u) of soil under foundation loads, including Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, Meyerhof's equation which includes a shape factor, and Hansen's method which is a further extension incorporating additional factors. The limiting shear resistance or qu/u of the soil must be sufficient to support the load from structures without shear failure or excessive settlements.
IRJET - Experimental Investigation on Behaviour of Footings Subjected to Hori...IRJET Journal
- The document reports on an experimental investigation into the behavior of circular footings subjected to horizontal loads.
- A series of laboratory load tests were conducted where parameters like depth of footing, soil type, ratio of vertical to horizontal load were varied.
- The tests found that lateral deformation decreases with increasing depth of footing and vertical load, as these factors increase confinement of the soil around the footing.
- Inclination or tilt of the footing under combined loading was also found to decrease with increased depth.
- The addition of micropiles was found to improve the lateral load-deformation behavior by decreasing lateral displacement.
TUNNELING IN HIMALAYAS WITH NATM METHOD: A SPECIAL REFERENCES TO SUNGAL TUNNE...IRJET Journal
1) The document discusses the Sungal Tunnel project in Jammu and Kashmir, India, which is being constructed using the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM).
2) NATM involves continuous monitoring during construction to adapt to changing ground conditions, and makes extensive use of shotcrete for temporary tunnel support.
3) The methodology section outlines the systematic geotechnical design process for tunnels according to Austrian guidelines, and describes the various steps of NATM tunnel construction including initial and secondary tunnel support.
STUDY THE EFFECT OF RESPONSE REDUCTION FACTOR ON RC FRAMED STRUCTUREIRJET Journal
This study examines the effect of response reduction factors (R factors) on reinforced concrete (RC) framed structures through nonlinear dynamic analysis. Three RC frame models with varying heights (4, 8, and 12 stories) were analyzed in ETABS software under different R factors ranging from 1 to 5. The results showed that displacement increased as the R factor decreased, indicating less linear behavior for lower R factors. Drift also decreased proportionally with increasing R factors from 1 to 5. Shear forces in the frames decreased with higher R factors. In general, R factors of 3 to 5 produced more satisfactory performance with less displacement and drift. The displacement variations between different building heights were consistent at different R factors. This study evaluated how R factors influence
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RCC ELEMENT OF SLAB WITH STARK STEEL (HYSD STEEL) A...IRJET Journal
This study compares the use of Stark Steel and TMT Steel as reinforcement materials in a two-way reinforced concrete slab. Mechanical testing is conducted to determine the tensile strength, yield strength, and other properties of each material. A two-way slab design adhering to codes and standards is executed with both materials. The performance is analyzed in terms of deflection, stability under loads, and displacement. Cost analyses accounting for material, durability, maintenance, and life cycle costs are also conducted. The findings provide insights into the economic and structural implications of each material for reinforcement selection and recommendations on the most suitable material based on the analysis.
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The Influence Depth of a Highway Embankment
1. Page 1
The Influence Depth of a Highway Embankment
SHARIFULLAH AHMED P.ENG1
1Ph. D. Scholar (Geotechnical), Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology (BUET), Dhaka–1000, Bangladesh.
Sr. Geotechnical Engineer, Soil Investigation Division, Bangladesh Highway Research Laboratory (BRRL),
Mirpur-1216, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Email: sharif.geo.2006@gmail.com
Abstract–The Axle Pressure and the Consolidation
Pressure decreases with the height of highway
embankment and the depth of subsoil. This reduction of
pressure depends on the height and width of the
embankment. This depth is the significant stressed zone
at which the pressure reduced to 0.2 or 20%. This
significant stressed zone is defined as the influence of a
Highway embankment. The axle pressure is reduced to
7% for embankment height 1-3m and to 0.7% for
embankment height 4-12m at the bottom level of
Highway Embankment. This observation implies that,
the portion of axle pressure transferred to subsoil
underlying the embankment is not significant for
Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL) factor up to 30.
The 70% consolidation to be occurred after the
construction of the surface layer of pavement.
Considering this ratio of post construction settlement,
70% consolidation pressure (Δσ70) is used in this
analysis. The magnitude of influence depth or
Significant Stressed Zone (Ds has been obtained keeping
the range of crest width (at the top level of the
embankment) from 5m to 50m and for the range of
embankment height from 1.0m to 12.0m considering
70% of consolidation pressure (Δσ70).
Significant stressed zones (Ds) for 70% embankment
pressure (Δσ70) are found as 2-6.2He for embankment
top width 5-50m.
Key Words: Consolidation pressure, Equivalent
Standard Axle Load (ESAL), Highway Embankment, HS
20-44, Significant Stressed Zone, Stress Distribution
1. INTRODUCTION
In Bangladesh, it is common practice to construct
highway embankments on soft or very loose natural
subsoil that extends to vast depths. The assessment
for bearing capacity and settlement of highway
embankment is subjected to the depth of stressed
zone extended into the underlying poor subsoil.
The depth of subsoil (as a multiplication of
embankment height) to be evaluated up to which
depth the transferred stresses or pressure is
significant. To obtain the significant influence depth or
significant stressed zone a research study on stress
distribution to subsoil below a Highway embankment
has been carried out. In this study, simplified ratios of
embankment height to depth or substantial stressed
zone inside subsoil are determined for various depths
and widths of embankment.
2. TRAFFIC LOAD ON SUBSOIL
Traffic induced stress on Highway Embankment is
due to axle load of traffic vehicle. Stresses on subsoil
underlying Highway embankment are transferred
portion of axle load and the self-weight of
embankment.
As per Bangladesh Road Master Plan [1], Standard
axle loads used for calculating Equivalent Standard
Axle Load (ESAL) are front (steering) axle – 65 kN;
rear single axle – 80 kN; and tandem axles – 147 kN.
As per traffic survey in different national highways in
Bangladesh ESAL for dual tyre single axle is 33. This
value is much greater than the allowable ESAL=4.8
(for heavy truck).
Equivalent Standard Axle Load,
ESAL= Wa / Wr or, Wa = ESAL (Wr) (1)
where, Wa=Actual Axle Load and Wr=Reference axle
load (80kN).
3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION
3.1 Distribution of Axle Load
The simplest approach of stress distribution at a
depth is 2:1 (vertical to horizontal). This empirical
method is used for tyre loading in this stusy (Fig- 1)
[2].
Due to spreading of the same vertical load over a
much larger area at depth, the unit stress reduced.
Stress on the plan at depth z,
∆𝑞 = ( )( )
(2)
According to Fig-1, pressure on tyre to pavement
contact area,
𝜎 = (3)
And the concentrated load on pavement,
2. Page 2
𝜎 𝐵𝐿 = (𝑊 /2)𝐵𝐿 = 𝑊 /2 (4)
where, Wa = Axle Load and B, L=Width and Length of
Tyre to pavement contact area successively.
Fig- 1 The 2V:1H Method for Vertical Stress Increase as
a function of soil depth below tyre [2].
Fig- 2
The intersection of pressure interface.
Pressure transferred to embankment fill below
pavement, due to Wheel Load,
∆𝑞 = ( )( )
(5)
Considering interface/overlap of pressure from
two wheel in an axle (shown in Fig- 2),
∆𝑞 = ( )( )
= ( )( )
(6)
where,
𝐻 = Height of Embankment fill above natural ground
level
The ratio of stress at those two level is ∆𝑞/𝜎 . This
ratio indicates the percentage of load which
transferred to He depth.
3.2. Distribution of Embankment Pressure
Embankment Pressure at bottom level of
embankment is 𝑞 = 𝛾 𝐻 which is considered to be
distributed as per Fig- 3 [3].
Consolidation Pressure at Hs depth below center of
embankment [3],
𝛥𝜎 = (𝛼 + 𝛼 ) − (𝛼 ) (7)
where, Hs = Depth of Subsoil underlying embankment,
γe = Bulk Unit weight of embankment fill, Bt = Width of
embankment top.
And, in equation (7) –
the distance between stressed point and end of
embankment top= 𝐵 /2
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
+ 2𝐻
𝐻
− 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐻
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐻
and, 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
+ 2𝐻
𝐻
Now, for Consolidation Pressure at Hs depth below
the end of embankment top (replacing by 0),
𝛥𝜎 =
𝑞
𝜋
𝛼 (8)
Fig- 3 Stress Reduction due to embankment loading
considering 1V:2H Side slope [3]
In equation (8) –
Considering the distance between stressed point
and end of embankment top= 0
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2𝐻
𝐻
𝛼 = 0
and, 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2𝐻
𝐻
= 𝛼
Average Consolidation Pressure at Hs depth below the
embankment,
∆𝜎 =
1
2
(∆𝜎 + ∆𝜎 ) (9)
where,
𝜎 =
𝑊𝑎
𝐵𝐿
3. Page 3
𝛥𝜎 = Consolidation Pressure at Hs depth below center
of embankment and 𝛥𝜎 = Consolidation Pressure at Hs
depth below the end of embankment top.
In Bangladesh the range of width of carriage way
is 3.0m to 22.0m [4]. The range of crest width
including shoulder, verge and median is 5m to 30m.
For 4 Lane and expressway the range of crest width
may be 30m to 40m. In this study the range of crest
width (at top level of embankment) is kept between
5m and 50m. The range of embankment height 1m to
12m and side slope of embankment 1V:2H are taken
for analysis.
4. SIGNIFICANT STRESSED ZONE OF HIGHWAY
EMBANKMENT
As recommended by [5] the depth of 20% of the
foundation contact pressure is significant stressed
zone for settlement analysis termed as the significant
depth Ds. Terzaghi's suggestion was based on his
finding that direct stresses are regarded as negligible
if they account for less than 20% of the applied stress.
4.1 Significant Stressed Zone for Axle Pressure
For HS 20-44 Truck and Tandem, the design
contact area of tyre for dual tyre single axle is a single
rectangle of width, B= 510mm and length, L= 250mm
(Fig- 4).
Fig- 4 Tyre contact area of HS 20-44 [6][7]
For dual tyre tandem axle is a single the design
contact area is double rectangle of width, B= 510mm
and length, L= 500mm. These values of B and L are
used in current analysis of stress distribution.
The values of the stress transfer ratio ∆𝑞/𝜎 are
calculated for different value of He and Hs. Through the
values of ∆𝑞/𝜎 the amount of load transferred to Hs
depth is assessed.
The changes of ∆𝑞/𝜎 with He for different value of
ESAL are presented in Chart-1 for dual tyre single axle.
Similarly, the changes of ∆𝑞/𝜎 with He for different
value of ESAL are presented in Chart-2 for dual tyre
tandem axle.
∆
is independent of ESAL.
Simplified maximum ratios of transferred load to
subsoil or the maximum values of ∆𝑞/𝜎 are tabulated
in Table 1.0 for different range of embankment height
(He) according to Chart-1 and Chart-2.
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
∆𝑞/𝜎
𝑧
He(m)
Chart-1: He Vs σz/σ0 for He=1m to 12m
for Dual Tyer Single Axle
ESAL=1
ESAL=10
ESAL=30
Table 1 Maximum value of ∆𝑞/𝜎 for different range of embankment height (he).
Depth of Embankment, He (m) 1 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 10-11 10-12
∆𝑞/𝜎 (Dual Tyre Single Axle) 7% 2.5% 0.7% 0.35% 0.2% 0.15% ≤0.08%
∆𝑞/𝜎 (Dual Tyre Tandem Axle) 12% 4.5% 1.5% 0.6% 0.35% 0.25% ≤0.16%
Table 2 According to [8] the settlement and time data.
Time (Day) 10 100 730 1000 10000
Time (Year) 0.03 0.27 2.00 2.74 27.40
Considering two way drainage Consolidation Settlement (mm) 196 392 448 1288 1400
Considering one way drainage Consolidation Settlement (mm) 84 196 1000 672 1400
% of Total Consolidation Considering two way drainage 14 28 71 92 100
% of Total Consolidation Considering one way drainage 6 14 32 48 100
4. Page 4
As observed in Table 1, according to current study,
maximum 12% of axle pressure for the range of
embankment height 1-3m and maximum 1.5% of axle
pressure for the range of embankment height 4-12m
is to be transferred to subsoil underlying the highway
embankment.
Hence, according to Terzaghi's recommendation
[5] transfer of axle load to subsoil is not significant for
the foundation deign of highway embankment.
4.2 Significant Stressed Zone for Embankment
Pressure
Consolidation settlement of the subsoil underlying
the highway embankment will take place for
embankment pressure or self-weight produced
pressure. Consolidation Pressure (Δσ) is derived from
only Embankment Pressure (qe).
Chart-3: Settlement-time curve [8]
The transfer of embankment pressure is significant for
assessment of consolidation settlement.
The residual portion of consolidation settlement is
to be considering in assessment of settlement risk.
According to observed time-settlement curves under
surcharge load is presented in Chart-3 and in Table 2
[8].
Table 2's time-settlement data indicates that,
following the completion of embankment filling, at
least 30% of the total consolidation will occur during
the next two years of construction.
So that, after construction 70% consolidation to be
considered as residual settlement. For those two
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
1 3 5 7 9 11
Δq/σ
z
He (m)
Chart-2: He Vs σz/σ0 for He=1m to 12m
for Dual Tandem Single Axle
ESAL=1
ESAL=10
ESAL=30
5. Page 5
references, significant stressed zones for Highway
Embankment are analyzed accounting 70%
Consolidation Pressure (𝛥𝜎 ) at Hs depth due self-
weight induced pressure of embankment.
Now, 70% Consolidation Pressure at Hs depth
(kN/m2),
𝛥𝜎 = 0.7 ×
1
2
(∆𝜎 + ∆𝜎 ) = 0.35(∆𝜎 + ∆𝜎 ) (10)
The values of the stress transfer ratio 𝛥𝜎 /qe are
calculated for different value of He, Bt and Hs. Change of
𝛥𝜎 /qe for different Depth Ratio (Hs/He) are
presented in Chart-4 to Chart-9 for range of Bt =5m to
50m and range of He=1m to 12m. Depth Ratio (Hs/He)
at 𝛥𝜎 /qe=0.20 is termed as
.
for width of
Embankment Top, Bt =5m to 50m and height of
embankment, He=1m to 12m is presented in Table 3
and in Chart-10.
Depth Ratio (Hs/He) at 𝛥𝜎 /qe=0.20 for width of
Embankment Top, Bt =5m to 50m and height of
embankment, He=1m to 12m is presented alternately
in Chart-11.
According to power trend line of Chart-11, Depth
Ratio (Hs/He) for Δσ50/qe =0.20 is termed as
.
may be expressed by equation (11.1) to (11.6) –
.
= 3.32(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=5m (11.1)
.
= 4.52(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=10m (11.2)
.
= 6.11(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=20m (11.3)
.
= 7.20(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=30m (11.4)
.
= 8.00(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=40m (11.5)
.
= 8.44(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=50m (11.6)
Significant stressed zone,
Ds=𝐻
.
(12)
Table 3: Values of
.
for width of Bt =5m to 50m
and He =1m to 12m
Bt (m) 5 10 20 30 40 50 He (m)
.
3.6 4.7 6.2 7.2 7.8 8 1
2.7 3.6 4.7 5.5 6.2 6.8 2
2.4 3.1 3.9 4.7 5.3 5.8 3
2.2 2.7 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.1 4
2.1 2.3 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.3 6
1.9 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.6 3.8 8
1.9 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.6 10
1.8 2.0 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 12
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Δσ
70
/q
e
Hs/He
Chart-4: Hs/He Vs Δσ70/qe for Bt=5m
He=1m He=2m
He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m
He=10m He=12m
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Δσ
70
/q
e
Hs/He
Chart-5: Hs/He Vs Δσ70/qe for Bt=10m
He=1m He=2m
He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m
He=10m He=12m
6. Page 6
Hence, the Significant stressed zone, Ds for 70%
consolidation pressure may be expressed by equation
(13.1) to (13.6) –
𝐷 = 3.32(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=5m (13.1)
𝐷 = 4.52(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=10m (13.2)
𝐷 = 6.11(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=20m (13.3)
𝐷 = 7.20(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=30m (13.4)
𝐷 = 8.00(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=40m (13.5)
𝐷 = 8.44(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=50m (11.6)
Approximately simplified values of Ds is given in
Table 4.
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Δσ
70
/q
e
Hs/He
Chart-6: Hs/He Vs Δσ70/qe for Bt=20m
He=1m He=2m
He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m
He=10m He=12m
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Δσ
70
/q
e Hs/He
Chart-7: Hs/He Vs Δσ70/qe for Bt=30m
He=1m He=2m
He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m
He=10m He=12m
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Δσ
70
/q
e
Hs/He
Chart-8: Hs/He Vs Δσ70/qe for Bt=40m
He=1m He=2m
He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m
He=10m He=12m
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Δσ
70
/q
d
Hs/He
Chart-9: Hs/He Vs Δσ70/qe for Bt=50m
He=1m He=2m
He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m
He=10m He=12m
7. Page 7
Table 4: Simplified values of Ds for 70%
consolidation pressure
With of
Embankment
Top, Bt
5-10 20-30 40-50
He
(m)
Ds
3He 5He 6.2 He 1-4
2He 2.8 He 3.5 He 6-12
Simplified form of Ds for 70% consolidation
pressure may be expressed by equation (14.1) and
(14.2) –
𝐷 = 4.7(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=5-20m (14.1)
𝐷 = 7.9(𝐻 ) .
for Bt=30-50m (14.2)
5. CONCLUSION
Maximum 12% of axle pressure for embankment
height 1-3m and maximum 1.5% of axle pressure for
embankment height 4-12m is to be transferred to
subsoil underlying the highway embankment.
According to Terzaghi's recommendation for
significant stressed zone, transferred portion of axle
load to subsoil is not significant regardless of ESAL.
The transferred portion of consolidation is much
more significant than transferred axle pressure.
Considering 70% consolidation to be occurred after
construction of surface layer of pavement, 70%
consolidation pressure is used in this analysis. The
depth was identified at which the pressure is reduced
to 20% of Δσ70 and this depth is termed as significant
stressed zone (Ds).
Significant stressed zones for embankment
pressure are found 2-3He for embankment top width
5-10m, 2.8-5He for embankment top width 20-30m
and 3.5-6.2He for embankment top width 40-50m.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
H
s
/H
e
Bt
Chart-10: Hs/He Vs Bt for (Δσ70)/qe =0.20
He=1m He=2m He=3m He=4m
He=6m He=8m He=10m He=12m