This document summarizes Andrew Kitchenham's 2008 article on the evolution of John Mezirow's transformative learning theory. The summary discusses:
1) Mezirow's early development of the theory in 1978 based on a study of women returning to education, which identified 10 phases of a "personal transformation."
2) The influences on Mezirow's early theory from Kuhn's paradigm theory, Freire's conscientization, and Habermas' domains of learning, which informed concepts like disorienting dilemmas and perspective transformation.
3) How Mezirow's theory has undergone revisions over time as he responded to criticisms and further developed the concepts between 1978-2008.
Observation Power Point Presentation 9 10 2010lggvslideshare
Example of Professional Development Workshop designed to expand upon teacher expertise, enrich the learning environment, and better understand the whole child.
My presentation from the ND Education Academy.
Many people think that we have a student learning problem in schools. I believe we have an adult learning problem. To truly increase student achievement it must start with the adults in the building. We must develop a culture of learning that begins with teachers and trickles down to students. In this session I will provide practical ideas that will help your district create a focus on learning.
Reflective practice is a discipline that ensures we give adequate time and attention to reflection in the learning cycle. It is necessary for the development of wisdom, and wisdom is necessary for effective change.
I MAKE THE DIFFERENCE : Encouraging Positive Behaviourshareenratnani
Gaps Exist-They always have and always will. However creating an environment to promote positive behaviour enriches the learning process, catalyses closing gaps between teachers and students and creates an understanding of learning patterns.
Differentiated instruction provides students with different avenues to acquire content; Encouraging positive behaviour creates an acceptance and understanding that all students within a classroom can learn with a positive disposition, regardless of differences in ability.
Instructional Strategies: Indirect Instruction in your lessonsCaryn Chang
As there are many categories of instructional strategies, this e-book focuses on indirect instruction. Indirect instruction is mainly student- centred and emphasizes on allowing students to get involved throughout a lesson by observing thus seeking their own meaning of the lesson.
In this e-book, the methods of indirect instruction that can be used in class will be discussed and explored.
A framework for action: Intervening to increase adoption of transformative we...Joan E. Hughes, Ph.D.
Abstract: Web 2.0 tools have emerged as conducive for innovative pedagogy and transformative learning opportunities for youth. Currently, Web 2.0 is often adopted into teachers’ practice to simply replace or amplify traditional instructional approaches rather than promote or facilitate transformative educational change. Current models of innovation adoption do not adequately address successful diffusion of transformative educational technology. A new interactional model, called a framework-for-action (FFA), repositions ‘success’ on qualitative criteria and necessitates timely intervention by change agents at ‘points of factor interaction’ in the change process. These interventions engage potential adopters (i.e., teachers) in meaningful learning opportunities that reposition individuals or groups to make decisions leading to adoption of technologies that support transformative learning and teaching with web 2.0 tools.
Final published article can be found at:
Hughes, J. E., Guion, J.*, Bruce, K.*, Horton, L.*, & Prescott, A.* (2011.) A framework for action: Intervening to increase adoption of transformative web 2.0 learning resources. Educational Technology, 51(2), 53-61.
Observation Power Point Presentation 9 10 2010lggvslideshare
Example of Professional Development Workshop designed to expand upon teacher expertise, enrich the learning environment, and better understand the whole child.
My presentation from the ND Education Academy.
Many people think that we have a student learning problem in schools. I believe we have an adult learning problem. To truly increase student achievement it must start with the adults in the building. We must develop a culture of learning that begins with teachers and trickles down to students. In this session I will provide practical ideas that will help your district create a focus on learning.
Reflective practice is a discipline that ensures we give adequate time and attention to reflection in the learning cycle. It is necessary for the development of wisdom, and wisdom is necessary for effective change.
I MAKE THE DIFFERENCE : Encouraging Positive Behaviourshareenratnani
Gaps Exist-They always have and always will. However creating an environment to promote positive behaviour enriches the learning process, catalyses closing gaps between teachers and students and creates an understanding of learning patterns.
Differentiated instruction provides students with different avenues to acquire content; Encouraging positive behaviour creates an acceptance and understanding that all students within a classroom can learn with a positive disposition, regardless of differences in ability.
Instructional Strategies: Indirect Instruction in your lessonsCaryn Chang
As there are many categories of instructional strategies, this e-book focuses on indirect instruction. Indirect instruction is mainly student- centred and emphasizes on allowing students to get involved throughout a lesson by observing thus seeking their own meaning of the lesson.
In this e-book, the methods of indirect instruction that can be used in class will be discussed and explored.
A framework for action: Intervening to increase adoption of transformative we...Joan E. Hughes, Ph.D.
Abstract: Web 2.0 tools have emerged as conducive for innovative pedagogy and transformative learning opportunities for youth. Currently, Web 2.0 is often adopted into teachers’ practice to simply replace or amplify traditional instructional approaches rather than promote or facilitate transformative educational change. Current models of innovation adoption do not adequately address successful diffusion of transformative educational technology. A new interactional model, called a framework-for-action (FFA), repositions ‘success’ on qualitative criteria and necessitates timely intervention by change agents at ‘points of factor interaction’ in the change process. These interventions engage potential adopters (i.e., teachers) in meaningful learning opportunities that reposition individuals or groups to make decisions leading to adoption of technologies that support transformative learning and teaching with web 2.0 tools.
Final published article can be found at:
Hughes, J. E., Guion, J.*, Bruce, K.*, Horton, L.*, & Prescott, A.* (2011.) A framework for action: Intervening to increase adoption of transformative web 2.0 learning resources. Educational Technology, 51(2), 53-61.
FellowBuddy.com is an innovative platform that brings students together to share notes, exam papers, study guides, project reports and presentation for upcoming exams.
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Inverting the classroom, improving student learningRobert Talbert
The traditional classroom model has the transmission of information done in the class and the assimilation of that info done outside the class. But does that make sense? Shouldn't the instructor be the most available to the students when they are working on the hardest tasks? The inverted classroom model says "yes", and puts the lecture outside the class while freeing up time in class to be spent on hard, authentic problems to solve. This talk is all about this inverted model.
Internet of Things (IoT) - We Are at the Tip of An IcebergDr. Mazlan Abbas
You are likely benefitting from The Internet of Things (IoT) today, whether or not you’re familiar with the term. If your phone automatically connects to your car radio, or if you have a smartwatch counting your steps, congratulations! You have adopted one small piece of a very large IoT pie, even if you haven't adopted the name yet.
IoT may sound like a business buzzword, but in reality, it’s a real technological revolution that will impact everything we do. It's the next IT Tsunami of new possibility that is destined to change the face of technology, as we know it. IoT is the interconnectivity between things using wireless communication technology (each with their own unique identifiers) to connect objects, locations, animals, or people to the Internet, thus allowing for the direct transmission of and seamless sharing of data.
IoT represents a massive wave of technical innovation. Highly valuable companies will be built and new ecosystems will emerge from bridging the offline world with the online into one gigantic new network. Our limited understanding of the possibilities hinders our ability to see future applications for any new technology. Mainstream adoption of desktop computers and the Internet didn’t take hold until they became affordable and usable. When that occurred, fantastic and creative new innovation ensued. We are on the cusp of that tipping point with the Internet of Things.
IoT matters because it will create new industries, new companies, new jobs, and new economic growth. It will transform existing segments of our economy: retail, farming, industrial, logistics, cities, and the environment. It will turn your smartphone into the command center for the both digital and physical objects in your life. You will live and work smarter, not harder – and what we are seeing now is only the tip of the iceberg.
Learning from each other: Dialogical Argumentation in an Online Environment ........................................................ 1
Anita Chadha and Renée B. Van Vechten
A Qualitative Examination of Factors for Success in a Content-Based English Language Learner Classroom ....... 18
Janet Delgado, Ed.D and Lorraine T. Benuto , Ph.D.
Radio Wave Errors: Students Mistaking Radio Transverse Electromagnetic Light Waves as Longitudinal Sound
Waves ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
A. E. Tabor-Morris, Ph.D., T. M. Briles, Ed.D. and R. Schiele, B.S.
Impact of Teaching Attitudes and Behaviors for Learning on the Reading Achievement of Students Falling
Behind .................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Michael E. Bernard
Balancing Reflection and Validity in Health Profession Students‘ Self-Assessment................................................... 65
Sherri Melrose
Innovative Teaching with Use of an Art Work ................................................................................................................. 77
Marios Koutsoukos and Iosif Fragoulis
Classification Essay Thesis. Classification Essay Leadership Applied Psycho...Lauren Davis
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CHAPTER 7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESESInvestigators placeJinElias52
CHAPTER 7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a study. The first signpost is the purpose statement, which establishes the central intent for the study. The next would be the research questions or hypotheses that narrow the purpose statement to predictions about what will be learned or questions to be answered in the study. This chapter begins by advancing several principles in designing qualitative research questions and helpful scripts for writing these questions. It then turns to the design of quantitative research questions and hypotheses and ways to write these elements into a study. Finally, it advances the use of research questions and hypotheses in mixed methods studies, and it suggests the development of a unique mixed methods question that ties together or integrates the quantitative and qualitative data in a study.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These research questions assume two forms: (a) a central question and (b) associated subquestions.
Ask one or two central research questions. The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as to not limit the views of participants. To arrive at this question, ask, “What is the broadest question that I can ask in the study?” Beginning researchers trained in quantitative research might struggle with this approach because they are accustomed to reverse thinking. They narrow the quantitative study to specific, narrow questions or hypotheses based on a few variables. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold. The following are guidelines for writing qualitative research questions:
Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions. Several subquestions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning. This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman (1994), who recommended that researchers write no more than a dozen qualitative research questions in all (central and subquestions). The subquestions, in turn, become specific questions used during interviews (or in observing or when looking at documents). In developing an interview protocol or guide, the researcher might ask an icebreaker question at the beginning, for example, followed by five or so subquestions in the study (see Chapter 9). The interview would then end with an additional wrap-up or summary question or by asking, “Who should I ...
CAREER PATHWAYS: DISCOURSES OF
MOTHERS IN THE ACADEME
JOVENIL R. BACATAN1
, RENE P. SULTAN2
1Master of Arts in Educational Management
2Educational Management Professor
2The Rizal Memorial Colleges, Davao City, Philippines
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to gather information in exploring the discourses of the studentmothers in the academe impacting struggles, hopes, aspirations, and their coping mechanisms employed on the
different pressures they faced. The following research objectives informed this research: to describe the struggles
and journey of student-mothers; to determine the hopes and aspirations of student-mothers; and to determine the
coping mechanisms of student-mothers of the different pressures they are facing. This phenomenological study
explored and described the experiences of student mothers. A researcher-made interview guide questionnaire was
used in gathering data. This study also involved collecting, compiling, and analyzing data gathered through semistructured interviews. From the three major themes, namely: 1) struggles and journey; 2) hopes and aspirations;
and 3) coping mechanisms; twelve sub-themes emerged which included time management, financial concerns,
negative criticisms from people, motherhood responsibilities, health reasons, intellectual challenges, to complete a
degree, to land a job immediately for a better life, to make the family proud, strengthening family bond, selfmotivation, and support from family, friends, and teachers. This research implies encouragement to other mothers
to continue their incomplete education even if they already have children or families of their own. Further, the
research suggests a motivation to push and work harder for still; victory awaits those who sacrifice and persevere.
Future directions are also discussed in this study.
CAREER PATHWAYS: DISCOURSES OF MOTHERS IN THE ACADEMEJovenil Bacatan
The purpose of this research was to gather information in exploring the discourses of the student-mothers in the academe impacting struggles, hopes, aspirations, and their coping mechanisms employed on the different pressures they faced.
The Role and Application of Horticultural Therapy with Institutionaliized Older People
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“Social science inquiry method is based on the belief that providing a reflective and enquiry frame of reference to social issues helps to improve the personal and social life”.
Main developers: Byron Massialas, Benjamin Cox.
Massialas and Cox (1966) believed that school fosters development and inculcation of values in children and plays a crucial role in ‘creative reconstruction of culture’. Social inquiry method is helpful in identifying the social issues and dealing with them effectively.
Cox experimented with inquiry methods in teaching Junior High U.S. History, while Massialas focused on the use of inquiry instruction in teaching High School World History.
For this Assignment you articulate how you will use research to .docxtemplestewart19
For this Assignment you articulate how you will use research to improve the lives of students with exceptionalities.
To prepare:
· Read, review, and reflect on your work in this course and your work in all of the courses that you have taken to date. By now, you should have a general idea of a topic in the field of special education that interests you—a topic or
gap in practice
about which you may wish to conduct a research study.
· Consider the course Learning Resources and those listed for this module. Reflect on your examination of research methodologies and how each can be applied specifically within the field of special education.
· Ask yourself: What would I like to contribute to the field as a leader in special education? Then, identify a specific problem focusing on a gap in practice in the field of special education related to improving the lives of students with exceptionalities. In selecting your problem, consider the relationship between the identified problem of practice and social change.
Develop
a 3–5 page paper utilizing the following section headings:
1.
Problem Statement
a. Provide a 1- to 2-paragraph statement that is the result of a review of current literature and practice that contains the following information:
i. A logical argument for the need to address an identified gap in special education practice. Make sure to clarify why you believe that this is problem of practice in SPED.
ii. Preliminary evidence that provides justification that this problem is meaningful. Provide a minimum of 3–5 key citations that support the relevance and currency of the problem. These references need not all be from peer reviewed journals but should be from reputable sources, such as national agency databases or scholarly books, and should ideally be from the past 5 years.
2.
Significance
a. Provide 1 or 2 paragraphs informed by the topic outlined in the problem statement that describe the following:
i. How this study will contribute to filling the gap in SPED practice identified in the problem statement: What original contribution will this study make?
ii. How this research will support professional practice or allow practical application: Answer the “So what?” question.
3.
Questions
a. List the question or a series of related questions that are informed by the purpose, which will lead to the development of what needs to be done to research the identified gap in practice. A research question informs the research design by providing a foundation for
i. generation of hypotheses in quantitative studies,
ii. questions necessary to build the design structure for qualitative studies, and a
iii. process by which different methods will work together in mixed-methods studies.
4.
Nature of the Study
a. Using one of the following terms as a subheading, provide a concise paragraph that discusses the approach that will be used to address the research question(s) and how this approach aligns with the problem statement.
i. Th.
Scaffolding Critical Thinking in Online-Based ScenariosGihan Osman
This presentation reports on a study that examined the role of scaffolding and facilitation on critical thinking and participation in online discussions at the college level
"The rise of black power had a profound effect upon the appearance of black theology. When Carmichael and other radical black activists separated themselves from King's absolute commitment to nonviolence by proclaiming black power, white Christians especially members of the clergy, called upon their black brothers and sisters in the gospel to denounce black power as unChristian. To the surprise of white Christians, the National Committee of Negro Churchmen (NNC); later to become NCBC) refused to follow their advice and instead wrote a "Black Power Statement" that was published in the New York Time, July 31, 1966.
The Theology of Spirituality: It's Growing Importance Amid the Transformation...Jonathan Dunnemann
Abstract: This article raises issues surrounding the theology of spirituality as a relatively new theological focus. It argues that, faced with a changing world and numerous new (or perceived as new) phenomena, the theology of spirituality, as a scholarly area examining spiritual experience, is becoming a branch of
theological research of increasing importance. The first part of this article focuses on the ever-growing areas of interest found within the theology of spirituality, a growth stemming from the core of the field itself (agere sequitur esse). The second part emphasizes the newer areas of interest within the theology
of spirituality. These new horizons arise from the pluralism of theology itself and the criteria used in differentiating theological disciplines, such as ethno-geographic, doctrinal, and ascetic-practical concerns. In particular, amid a fast-changing world in which information and mutual contact have become incredibly accessible, the interpenetration of cultures and traditions can not only be of great value but also carry the dangers of a chaotic eclecticism. As this accessibility becomes ever easier and more pervasive, contemporary human beings can thus become confused, not only about their worldviews but also concerning their spiritual and religious beliefs. Thus, research into the theology of spirituality is becoming increasingly more important.
Using an interdisciplinary approach and a phenomenological, hermeneutic, mystagogical methodology, this paper explores how children describe the deep fruits of meditation in their lives. Seventy children, aged 7 to 11, from four Irish primary schools were interviewed; all had engaged in meditation as a whole-school practice for at least two-years beforehand. The study sought to elicit from children their experience, if any, of the transcendent in meditation. It concludes that children can and do enjoy deep states of consciousness and that meditation has the capacity to nourish the innate spirituality of the child. It highlights the importance of personal spiritual experience for children and supports the introduction of meditation in primary schools.
ASSESSMENT OF CHARACTER STRENGTHS AMONG YOUTH: THE VALUES IN ACTION INVENTORY...Jonathan Dunnemann
Raising virtuous children is an ultimate goal not only of all parents and educators but also of all societies. Across different eras and cultures, identifying character strengths (virtues) and cultivating them in children and youth have been among the chief interests of philosophers, theologians, and educators. With a few exceptions, these topics have been neglected by psychologists. However, the emerging field of positive psychology specifically emphasizes
building the good life by identifying individual strengths of character and fostering them (Seligman, 2002). Character strengths are now receiving attention by psychologists interested in positive youth development.
African American spirituality provides a rich lens into the heart and soul of the black church experience, often overlooked in the Christian spiritual formation literature. By addressing this lacuna, this essay focuses on three primary shaping qualities o f history: the effects of slavery, the Civil Rights Movement under Dr. Martin Luther King’s leadership, and the emergence of the Black Church. Lour spiritual practices that influence African American spirituality highlight the historical and cultural context of being “forged in the fiery furnace,” including worship, preaching and Scripture, the community of faith and prayer, and community outreach. The essay concludes by recognizing four areas o f the lived experiences of African Americans from which the global church can glean: (1) persevering in pain and suffering, (2) turning to God for strength, (3) experiencing a living and passionate faith, and (4) affirming God’s intention for freedom and justice to be afforded to every individual.
Strengths Building, Resilience, and the Bible: A Story-Based Curriculum for A...Jonathan Dunnemann
Depression is the leading cause of illness and disability in adolescents worldwide. Resilience training, founded on principles of positive psychology, is correlated with lower depression and
substance misuse in U.S. adolescents and military personnel. However, resilience training has focused primarily on secular interventions using western material. Religion is strongly correlated
with lower depression and also with well-being in developing countries. Ninety percent of adolescents live in developing countries, and at least two-thirds are oral learners who prefer
learning through stories and drama. This paper proposes a Bible story based curriculum that trains students in problem solving skills, character strengths, and both spiritual and secular
research-tested principles for resilience and well-being. The Bible is available by audio recording in 751 languages and offers a broad base of archetypal stories for teaching resilience. The
program is easily reproducible, culturally adaptable, respectful of all religions, and specifically crafted for oral learners. Through audio recordings to maintain fidelity, train the trainer programs
for dissemination and support of national and community leaders, the proposed curriculum for Global Resilience Oral Workshops (GROW) has potential to lower depression and lift well-being
in adolescents around the world.
Historical criticism attempts to read texts in their original situations, informed by literary and cultural conventions reconstructed from comparable texts and artifacts. African American interpretation extends this approach to questions about race and social location for the ancient text, its reception
history, and its modern readers. It arose as a corrective and alternative to white supremacist use of the Bible in moral and political arguments regarding race, civil rights, and social justice. Accordingly, African American interpretation has combined the
insights of abolitionists and activists with academic tools to demonstrate how biblical interpretation can function as an instrument of oppression, obfuscation, or opportunity. Of course, most of these developments have occurred in the larger framework of American Christianity. Yet, its analyses reach
beyond that specific setting, touching on the connections between the Bible and race in public discourse generally, whether in government, academia, or popular culture.
Appropriating Universality: The Coltranes and 1960s SpiritualityJonathan Dunnemann
The role of the Black Protestant Church has figured prominently in scholarly discussions of African American music culture, and to some extent its importance has been explored with respect to jazz. However, with the exception of the Nation of Islam, the influence of Eastern religious practices among black Americans has not been significantly researched nor have adequate connections been made between these spiritual pursuits and the musical innovations they inspired. Nevertheless, since the mid-’60s, black American artists have explored Yoga, Hinduism, various sects of Buddhism, Ahmadiya Islam, and Bahá’í. The
aesthetic impact of these pursuits has been multi-dimensional and far-reaching. In their study of Asian philosophy and religion, jazz musicians have been exposed to the sounds and musical processes they have discovered in the cultures from which these traditions have emerged. One can hear this influence in musical borrowings, such as the use of traditional instrumentation, the reworking of melodic material from folk and classical genres, and the incorporation of indigenous
improvisational and compositional techniques. Though less audible, Eastern spiritual traditions have also exerted a more abstract philosophical influence that has shaped jazz aesthetics, inspiring jazz musicians to dissolve formal and stylistic boundaries and produce works of great originality. Contextualizing the spiritual explorations of John and Alice Coltrane within American religious culture and liberation movements of the 1960s, this essay explores the way that
their eclectic appropriation of Eastern spiritual concepts and their commitment to spiritual universality not only inspired musical innovation, but also provided a counter-hegemonic, political, and cultural critique.
Who Is Jesus Christ for Us Today?
To say that Jesus Christ is the truth of the Christian story calls for further examination. It is one thing to assert that the New Testament describes Jesus as the Oppressed One who came to liberate the poor and the weak (Chap. 4); but it is quite another to ask, Who is Jesus Christ for us today? If twentieth-century Christians are to speak the truth for their sociohistorical situation, they cannot merely repeat the story of what Jesus did and said in Palestine, as if it were selfinterpreting for us today. Truth is more than the retelling of the biblical story. Truth is the divine happening that invades our contemporary situation, revealing the meaning of the past for the present so that we
are made new creatures for the future. It is therefore our commitment to the divine truth, as witnessed to in the biblical story, that requires us to investigate the connection between Jesus' words and deeds in firstcentury Palestine and our existence today. This is the crux of the christological issue that no Christian theology can avoid.
The pivotal role of religion and spirituality in the lives of African Americans marks this ethnoracial group as a particularly important target for attention in research on the psychology and sociology of religion. In this chapter we endeavor to achieve three ends: First, we briefly review literature on meanings of religiosity and spirituality among African Americans. Second, we review the literature on the link between religiosity, spirituality, and health among African Americans. Finally, we examine findings regarding the pathways by which religion and spirituality may achieve its ends.
Transformative Pedagogy, Black Theology and Participative forms of PraxisJonathan Dunnemann
"This formative analysis is... on the significant developments in religious education by and for Black people, principally in the US. ..., I describe my own participative approaches to Black theology by means of transformative pedagogy, which utilizes interactive exercises as a means of combining the insights of the aforementioned ideas and themes into a transformative mode of teaching and learning."
"..., I have attempted to combine the radical intent of transformative education arising from the Freirerian tradition with Black liberation theology in order to develop a more participative and interactive mode of theo-pedagogical engagement that moves intellectual discourse beyond mere theorizing into more praxis based forms of practice.
Development of a Program for the Empowerment of Black Single Mother Families ...Jonathan Dunnemann
The most rapid growing family type in the United States is the single parent family. It is the dominant family type in the African-American community. According to the United States Bureau of the Census (2010), 69% of all Black children are born to single mothers. Single mother families are at a dramatically greater risk for drug and alcohol abuse, mental illness, suicide, poor educational performance, teen pregnancy, and criminality (National Center for Health Statistics, 1993).
Black Males, Social Imagery, and the Disruption of Pathological IdentitiesJonathan Dunnemann
Throughout the history of the U.S., racialized groups have often had their experiences profoundly shaped by social imagery in ways that have created tremendous hardships in the quest for
self-actualization and a healthy sense of self.
The purpose of this article is to shed light on the manner in which Black males have been one of the primary victims of negative social imagery and how the remnants of these constructions continue to have contemporary influences, ....
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
The evolution of john mezirow's transformative learning theory
1. Journal of Transformative
Education
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The Evolution of John Mezirow's Transformative Learning Theory
Andrew Kitchenham
Journal of Transformative Education 2008 6: 104
DOI: 10.1177/1541344608322678
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3. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 105
Table 1
Mezirow’s (1978a, 1978b) Ten Phases of Transformative Learning
Phase 1 A disorienting dilemma
Phase 2 A self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame
Phase 3 A critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions
Phase 4 Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and
that others have negotiated a similar change
Phase 5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions
Phase 6 Planning of a course of action
Phase 7 Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans
Phase 8 Provisional trying of new roles
Phase 9 Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships
Phase 10 A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s perspective
out. In an effort to address the needs of U.S. women who were resuming their edu-cation
or were considering employment after an extended period of time out of uni-versity
or the workforce, respectively, Mezirow (1978a) conducted a qualitative
study to “identify factors that characteristically impede or facilitate” (p. 6) women’s
progress in the re-entry programs. In the original 1975 study, Mezirow (1978a,
1978b) investigated 12 re-entry college programs with 83 women. The 12 programs
represented a diverse population from New York/New Jersey (five programs), San
Francisco (five programs), and Washington state (two programs). As well, the
women were participating in programs from both 4- and 2-year colleges and were
divided into four distinct groups: re-entry into university after a long absence (51 women);
college women’s centre for counselling (8 women); regular adult enrolling, first-semester
community college students (16 women); and a program to assist working
women to manage their careers (14 women). As a follow-up to the study, he con-ducted
a nationwide telephone survey of 24 on-site programs in 11 states. In addi-tion,
he sent a mail enquiry to 1,172 2-year colleges and received responses from 846
colleges, of which 314 sponsored re-entry programs for women (Mezirow, 1978a).
On the basis of their findings, Mezirow (1978a, 1978b) and his team of researchers
concluded that the respondents had undergone a “personal transformation” and iden-tified
10 phases that they could experience (see Table 1).
Two major elements of transformative learning are critical reflection, or critical
self-reflection, on assumptions and critical discourse, where the learner validates a
best judgement (Mezirow, 2006) or “the process an individual evokes to monitor the
epistemic nature of problems and the truth value of alternative solutions” (P. M. King
& Kitchener, 1994, p. 12).
The influences on Mezirow’s early theory of transformative learning included
Kuhn’s (1962) paradigm, Freire’s (1970) conscientization, and Habermas’s (1971,
1984) domains of learning (Mezirow, 1978a, 1991a, 2000). The key ideas of these
theorists informed Mezirow’s transformative learning theory and the significant con-cepts
of disorienting dilemma, meaning schemes, meaning perspectives, perspective
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4. 106 Journal of Transformative Education
Table 2
The Influences on Mezirow’s Early Transformative
Learning Theory and Its Related Facets
Influence Transformative learning facet
Kuhn’s (1962) paradigm • Perspective transformation
• Frame of reference
• Meaning perspective
• Habit of mind
Freire’s (1970) conscientization • Disorienting dilemma
• Critical self-reflection
• Habit of mind
Habermas’s (1971, 1984) domains of learning • Learning processes
• Perspective transformation
• Meaning scheme
• Meaning perspective
transformation, frame of reference, levels of learning processes, habits of mind, and
critical self-reflection. Table 2 outlines these early influences on specific facets of
transformative learning theory.
Kuhn’s (1962) conception of paradigms provided a basis for Mezirow’s notion of
transformative learning. During a 1-year period at the Center for Advanced Studies
in the Behavioral Sciences, Kuhn wrote an essay on the history and nature of
science. In the process of writing the essay, he realised that there was a major dis-agreement
between the social scientists and the natural scientists as to what consti-tuted
legitimate scientific inquiry. In investigating the source of the disagreement,
Kuhn theorised the importance of paradigms, which he defined as “universally rec-ognized
scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solu-tions
to a community of practitioners” (p. viii). In Mezirow’s (1985, 1991a, 1991b,
2000) theory, paradigms became the frame of reference (see Table 2). Furthermore,
paradigms shared two essential elements: a scientific discovery that was clearly
unprecedented enough to attract a group of researchers away from other interests
(i.e., a set of meaning schemes) and an open-endedness that would leave problems
to be solved or redefined by the scientists (i.e., a meaning perspective) (see Table 2).
Kuhn provided several examples of paradigms throughout history but argued that the
history of electrical research in the first half of the 18th century exemplified best the
nature of a paradigm.
According to Kuhn (1962), there were numerous and conflicting views on the
nature of electricity, and all were derived from the theories of the day; however, despite
having read each other’s work, there was no discernible commonality across the vari-ous
views, or a shared frame of reference (Mezirow, 1991a). Benjamin Franklin and his
successors evolved a theory that combined many aspects of the conflicting theories and
answered several of the unanswered questions, thus attracting a group of “electricians”
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5. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 107
who continued Franklin’s pioneering work. This community of practitioners also
demonstrated why some theories or views do not become paradigms because “in the
absence of a paradigm or some candidate for a paradigm, all of the facts that could pos-sibly
pertain to the development of a given science are likely to seem equally relevant”
(Kuhn, 1962, p. 15). In short, a paradigm for electricity was formed through the com-bined
efforts of these scientists because they shared a common set of problems and
solutions (i.e., habits of mind or meaning perspective) and yet were able to pursue their
own interests (i.e., meaning schemes) within that paradigm and came to share a
common worldview (i.e., perspective transformation) (see Table 2).
As transformative learning involves a frame of reference that comprises habits of
mind and meaning perspectives, which lead to a perspective transformation, the
influence of Kuhn’s (1962) paradigm is quite apparent in Mezirow’s (1978a, 1978b,
1981, 1985) work (see Table 2). In addition, the theory of transformative learning
itself has become a paradigm, as it has explained many of the unanswered questions
about adult learning and created its own group of specialised practitioners.
Like Kuhn’s (1962) paradigm, the work of Paulo Freire also informed Mezirow’s
(1975) initial theories. Freire (1970) likened traditional education to the “banking”
method of learning, whereby the teacher deposits information to those students
whom the teacher deems worthy of receiving the gift of knowledge. The major prob-lem
with this form of education is that students become dependent on the teacher for
knowledge and do not learn to think for themselves: “The more students work at
storing the deposits entrusted to them, the less they develop the critical conscious-ness
which would result from their intervention in the world as transformers of that
world” (Freire, 1970, p. 60). Freire’s (1970) antidote to this reliance on someone else
and the lack of free thought was conscientization and its emphasis on developing a
consciousness that has the power to transform reality. He defined conscientization as
“learning to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions—developing a
critical awareness—so that individuals can take action against the oppressive ele-ments
of reality” (Freire, 1970, p. 19). Freire (1970) argued that for education to be
empowering, the teacher needs not only to be democratic but also to form a trans-formative
relationship between him or her and the students, students and their learn-ing,
and students and society. To Freire, education does not stop in the classroom but
continues in all aspects of a learner’s life. Therefore, education is always political in
nature—regardless of whether the learner and teacher realise their politics (Shor &
Freire, 1987). For instance, politics influences the way the teacher discusses con-cepts
with students, the types of tests used, the activities and materials chosen for
study, and the level of risk taking in the classroom (Shor, 1993).
Freire (1973) further argued that teachers themselves have a difficult time getting
past the “instilled certainty” (p. 52) that teaching is lecturing and that knowledge is
unidirectional. Before the classroom can be democratic, the teacher has to welcome
input from the students as well as present critical ideas for discussion so that they
“affirm themselves without thereby disaffirming their students” (Freire & Faundez,
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6. 108 Journal of Transformative Education
1989, p. 34). The conduit for this democracy is conscientization and its related
critical consciousness, which Freire argues is actualised through three stages of
consciousness growth (Freire, 1973).
The lowest stage of consciousness growth, “intransitive thought,” occurs when
people feel that their lives are out of their control and that change is up to fate or God.
They fatalistically believe that their actions cannot change their conditions and feel
disempowered with little hope for the future. The next stage, “semitransitive,”
involves some thought and action for change, but an individual at this stage addresses
problems one at a time and as they occur rather than seeing the problem as one of
society in general. At this stage, an individual may follow a strong leader who is seen
as one who can change one’s lot in life rather than become a leader or see oneself as
a change agent. The highest level of “critical transitivity” is reflected in individuals
who think globally and critically about their present conditions and who decide to
take action for change. These people are able to merge critical thought with critical
action to effect change in their lives and to see what the catalyst for that change could
be. It is this last stage of critical consciousness that clearly influenced Mezirow in his
notions of disorienting dilemma, critical reflection, critical self-reflection on assump-tions,
and critical discourse (Mezirow, 1978a, 1978b, 1985) (see Table 2).
Habermas (1971) also influenced Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning.
From 1956 to 1959, Habermas studied at the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research as
an assistant to Theodor Adorno, who had been instrumental in Habermas’s formula-tion
of his early ideas of social reform (Morrow & Torres, 2002). The Frankfurt
Institute was originally grounded in Marxism but abandoned that focus when the
founder, Max Horkheimer, repudiated his former Marxist ideology in favour of more
right-wing ideologies. In fact, Horkheimer became threatened by Habermas and
Habermas’s argument to return to Marxist roots and attempted to have Habermas dis-associated
from the Frankfurt School. In 1961, Habermas accepted a professorship at
Heidelberg University and produced his seminal work that critiqued modern democ-racy
(Habermas, 1989). Three years later, he returned to the University of Frankfurt as
a chair of philosophy and subsequently became involved in the emerging student polit-ical
movement. He soon became isolated from the movement and eventually rejected
Marxism in favour of his theory of communicative action (Habermas, 1984), which
was articulated during his directorship of the Max Planck Institute. It was in this two-volume
work that Habermas (1984) stressed the importance of people communicating
with each other in an effort to come to a common understanding so that it was not
the relation of a solitary subject to something in the objective world that can be repre-sented
or manipulated, but the intersubjective relation that speaking and acting subjects
take up when they come to an understanding with one another about something. (p. 392)
The theory was revised throughout the next 20 years. However, it was primarily
Habermas’s (1971) early work on domains of learning that was influential on
Mezirow’s transformative learning theory (see Table 2).
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7. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 109
In 1981, Mezirow turned to the work of Habermas to devise a critical theory of
adult learning and adult education. Habermas (1971) had proposed three domains of
learning: (a) the technical, (b) the practical, and (c) the emancipatory. Technical
learning is that learning that is rote, specific to a task, and clearly governed by rules;
in the case of my study (Kitchenham, 2006), teachers who learn the requisite parts
of a Web page would be engaging in technical learning. Practical learning involves
social norms; teachers who understand how to interact in an online chat room would
be experiencing practical learning. Emancipatory learning is introspective as the
learner is self-reflective and experiences self-knowledge; teachers who consider
their beliefs on technology infusion within their social systems of learning and
schools and come to an understanding of what, when, and why to infuse would be
encountering emancipatory learning. Mezirow’s examination of these three domains
led to his description of perspective transformation as
the emancipatory process of becoming critically aware of how and why the structure of
psycho-cultural assumptions has come to constrain the way we see ourselves and our
relationships, reconstituting this structure to permit a more inclusive and discriminat-ing
integration of experience and acting upon these new understandings. (p. 6)
In other words, the perspective transformation encompassed the aforementioned 10
phases of adult learning (see Table 1).
Based on his pioneering research with adult learners, Mezirow (1978a) outlined
“a theory of adult development and a derivative concept of adult education” (p. 153)
that has been argued for and against for more than 20 years (Cranton, 2006). Several
years after his initial theory was proposed, Mezirow (1991a) revised the original 10
phases that adults go through when experiencing a perspective, rather than a per-sonal,
transformation and added an 11th stage, altering present relationships and
forging new relationships, to the theory. Table 3 outlines Mezirow’s changes in trans-formative
learning theory during the past 30 years.
Mezirow’s (1978a, 1978b) initial theory became more developed as he expanded the
view of perspective transformation by relating the emancipatory process to self-directed
learning to form three revised types of learning. The original three types of learning
(technical, practical, and emancipatory), based on Habermas’s (1971) work, became
(a) instrumental, (b) dialogic, and (c) self-reflective (Mezirow, 1985). Simply stated,
learners ask how they could best learn the information (instrumental), when and where
this learning could best take place (dialogic), and why they are learning the information
(self-reflective) (see Figure 1). Central to the perspective transformation and, therefore,
the three types of learning are the meaning perspective and the meaning schemes.
A meaning perspective refers “to the structure of cultural and psychological
assumptions within which our past experience assimilates and transforms new expe-rience”
(Mezirow, 1985, p. 21), whereas a meaning scheme is “the constellation of
concept, belief, judgment, and feeling which shapes a particular interpretation”
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8. 110 Journal of Transformative Education
(Mezirow, 1994b, p. 223). For instance, in the province of British Columbia
(Canada), teachers are expected by their school district to integrate technology to
increase student achievement, but based on their past experiences of curriculum
implementation within that frame of reference (meaning perspective), teachers are
discovering myriad ways to use technologies for other purposes, such as increasing
interest in writing essays and presenting information with a variety of multimedia
(meaning scheme). In short, a meaning perspective is a general frame of reference
comprising a series of specific meaning schemes.
Within each of the three learning types, three learning processes operate: learn-ing
within meaning schemes, learning new meaning schemes, and learning through
meaning transformation.
Table 3
A Summary of Mezirow’s Transformative Learning
Theory by Year and Salient Element
Year Salient Element
1978 • Proposed initial 10 phases of theory (see Table 1)
1981 • Adapted Habermas’s (1971) three domains of learning: technical, practical, and
emancipatory (see Table 2)
1985 • Expanded theory to include instrumental, dialogic, and self-reflective learning
• Defined meaning scheme and meaning perspective
• Introduced three learning processes: learning within meaning schemes, learning
new meaning schemes, and learning through meaning transformation
1991 • Added an additional phase, stressing the importance of altering present
relationships and forging new relationships
• Expanded earlier notion of the distorted meaning perspective
• Argued that there were three types of meaning perspectives: epistemic,
sociolinguistic, and psychological
• Presented three types of reflection: content, process, and premise
1995 • Stressed the importance of critical self-reflection in perspective transformation
1998 • Articulated critical reflection of assumptions, which included objective and
subjective reframing
2000 • Presented a revision of transformative learning by elaborating on and revising his
original terminologies
• Acknowledged the importance of the affective, emotional, and social aspects of
transformative learning
• Introduced habits of mind and points of view
2003 • Provided clear definition of his theory
2005 • Debated with Dirkx at the 6th International Transformative Learning Conference
and conceded that the two points of view could coexist (Dirkx, Mezirow, &
Cranton, 2006)
2006 • Presented an overview of transformative learning
• Further expanded on the theory in relation to constructivist theory, psychic
distortion, schema therapy, and individuation
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9. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 111
Figure 1
Diagrammatic Representation of Mezirow’s (1985)
Revised Transformative Learning Theory
The first learning process, learning within meaning schemes, involves learners
working with what they already know by expanding on, complementing, and revis-ing
their present systems of knowledge. The example of teaching in a computer lab
can elucidate this first learning process within the three learning types.
Instrumentally, teachers can review the most efficient manner to manage a large
group of students in a computer lab. Dialogically, they may be inclined to question
the best method of teaching a technological concept (e.g., hyperlinks) based on what
they believe as well as on what their colleagues have discussed. Self-reflectively,
teachers may record their observations of what appears to work best with the
students and use that information to plan the next class or classes.
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10. 112 Journal of Transformative Education
The second learning process within each of the three learning types is learning new
meaning schemes that are compatible with existing schemes within the learners’
meaning perspectives. Instrumentally, teachers can attempt to create Web pages with-out
relying on any notes, whereas previously, they relied on tutorials and handouts for
guidance. Dialogically, they can acquire a new constructivist theory of Web learning
(e.g., WebQuests) to augment their previous knowledge (e.g., Web page construc-tion).
Self-reflectively, they can view themselves as technology specialists when they
previously saw themselves as competent and confident but not specialised.
The last learning process within each of the three learning types is learning
through meaning transformation. This process requires “becoming aware of specific
assumptions (schemata, criteria, rules, or repressions) on which a distorted or incom-plete
meaning scheme is based and, through a reorganization of meaning, transform-ing
it” (Mezirow, 1985, p. 23). In short, the learner encounters a problem or anomaly
that cannot be resolved through present meaning schemes or through learning new
meaning schemes; the resolution comes through a redefinition of the problem.
Transformation occurs by critical self-reflection of the assumptions that supported the
meaning scheme or perspective in use. Through instrumental learning, the teacher
understands that rearranging the physical layout of a computer lab could result in
increasing efficiency in moving around the lab to assist students. Through dialogic
learning, the teacher comes to the conclusion that gender and age are not inhibitors
for learning how to operate a computer. Through self-reflective learning, the teacher,
who felt anxiety based on past failures with technology, becomes confident and com-petent
in digital video editing. It should be stressed it is only this last process, learn-ing
through meaning transformation, that results in perspective transformation.
Perspective transformation can occur in two dimensions. Each dimension is
related to changing meaning schemes. On one hand, it can occur painlessly through
an accumulation or concatenation of transformations in set meaning schemes
(Mezirow, 1985). Thus, a teacher may experience a perspective transformation
through a series of altered meaning schemes or “the constellation of concept, belief,
judgment, and feeling which shapes a particular interpretation” (Mezirow, 1994b,
p. 223). For example, teachers can examine how they learned to use keyboard short-cuts
in Microsoft Word and realise that those same techniques are useful in related
Microsoft products.
On the other hand, perspective transformation may also be an “epochal . . . [and] . . .
painful” (Mezirow, 1985, p. 24) transformation of meaning perspectives, or sets of mean-ing
schemes, as this dimension involves a comprehensive and critical re-evaluation of
oneself. For example, teachers can critically examine their philosophy of technology
and its role in primary school classrooms and come to the realisation that what they
believed previously no longer holds true for them (i.e., self-reflective learning within
meaning schemes).
Mezirow (1991a, 1994b) argued that the central element to the perspective trans-formation
is critical self-reflection. In other words, if a learner rationalised a new
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11. point of view without dealing with the deep feelings that accompanied the original
meaning scheme or perspective, perspective transformation could not occur.
Similarly, if a teacher adopted a new belief system through a top-down, power-coer-cion
paradigm (Hord, 1992), perspective transformation would aborted (invariably
be Mezirow, 1994b). In other words, if teachers did not reconcile the deep feelings
or had points of view subjected on them, they would learn without questioning the
veracity or utility of the information.
Revision of the Theory
In 1991, Mezirow (1991a) expanded the original 10-phase model of perspective
transformation to include an additional phase, “renegotiating relationships and nego-tiating
new relationships” (Mezirow, 1994b, p. 224), between the original Phases 8
and 9. This new phase reflected the importance of critical self-reflection. He further
outlined the constructivist assumptions that formed the basis of the revised theory as
including “a conviction that meaning exists within ourselves rather than in external
forms such as books and that personal meanings that we attribute to our experience
are acquired and validated through human interaction and communication”
(Mezirow, 1991a, p. xiv). In other words, meaning is individualistic and found inside
the learner and teacher rather than prescribed by external influences such as written
texts and speeches; however, that meaning becomes significant to the learner
through critical discourse with others. This view is reminiscent of Kuhn’s (1962)
paradigm and Freire’s (1970) conscientization, as well as of the constructivists
(Kelly, 1970; Knowles, 1975; Kolb, 1984; Piaget, 1972) and social constructivists
(e.g., Vygotsky, 1978).
Mezirow (1991a) elaborated on his earlier notion of the distorted or undeveloped
meaning perspective (Mezirow, 1985) that leads the learner “to view reality in a way
that arbitrarily limits what is included, impedes differentiation, lacks permeability or
openness to other ways of seeing, [and] does not facilitate an integration of experi-ence”
(Mezirow, 1991a, p. 188). He now contended that there are, in fact, three types
of meaning perspectives: epistemic (related to knowledge and how a person uses
knowledge), sociolinguistic (related to language and how it is used in social set-tings),
and psychological (related to the way people viewed themselves). The rem-edy
for any epistemic, sociolinguistic, and psychological distortions is the
perspective transformation through the revised 11-phase model and accompanying
reflective discourse. In other words, when a person begins to interpret new meaning
perspectives and meaning schemes, discussion with peers provides an ideal vehicle
for learning. However, it is not necessary that a person experience all 11 phases or
in a set order to experience a perspective transformation.
According to Mezirow (1991a), under optimal conditions, participation in this
discourse would have
Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 113
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12. 114 Journal of Transformative Education
accurate and complete information, be free from coercion and distorting self-perception,
be able to weigh evidence and assess arguments objectively, be open to alternative
perspectives, be able to reflect critically on presuppositions and their consequences,
have equal opportunity to participate (including the chance to challenge, question,
refute, and reflect, and to hear others do the same), and be able to accept an informed,
objective, and rational consensus as a legitimate test of validity. (p. 78)
The use of distortions in epistemic, sociolinguistic, and psychological meaning per-spectives,
as well as the use of critical discourse with others, is clearly applicable to
learning educational technology. Teachers would need to re-evaluate what they
believed they knew and what they actually knew (epistemic), what specific language
was used in educational technology settings (sociolinguistic), and what they per-ceived
about their own ways of learning (psychological) through critical discourse
with other learners or mentors.
In a book chapter on adult learning theory, Mezirow (1995) emphasised the
importance of critical reflection in transformative learning theory. Straightforward
reflection is the act of “intentional assessment” (p. 44) of one’s actions, whereas crit-ical
reflection not only involves the nature and consequence of one’s actions but also
includes the related circumstances of their origin. He presented three types of reflec-tion
and their roles in transforming meaning schemes and perspectives: content
reflection, process reflection, and premise reflection. In the process of reflection,
teachers ask themselves critical questions (Cranton, 1994). Figure 2 illustrates the
relationship between these types of reflection.
Content reflection involves thinking back to what was done and, therefore, might
involve a transformation of a meaning scheme (see Figure 2). For example, a teacher
might ask, “What do I believe I can do with PowerPoint in my Grade 6 class, given
my knowledge and past experiences?” Process reflection causes a person to consider
the aetiology of actions and whether there are other factors yet to be unveiled; this
form of reflection might also transform meaning schemes (see Figure 2). For
instance, a teacher might ask, “What were the positive and negative factors when
students created PowerPoint projects that will assist me in planning the lessons for
this new program?” Premise reflection requires the person to see the larger view of
what is operating within his or her value system, for instance, and could transform a
meaning perspective rather than a meaning scheme (see Figure 2). For example, the
teacher might ask, “Why is using PowerPoint so important to me at this time in my
career when I could use the same strategies I have used for 20 years?” Thus, critical
reflection is the process of premise reflecting (see Figure 2).
In other words, learners can transform an individual meaning scheme by examin-ing
previous actions (content reflection or learning within meaning schemes) or
where the actions and their related factors originated (process reflection or learning
new meaning schemes), but when they consider a more global view, the reflection is
much deeper, more complex, and involves transforming a series of meaning schemes
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13. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 115
Figure 2
Diagrammatic Representation of the Three Types of Reflection,
Their Related Actions, Transformations, and Depths of
Change (Mezirow, 1995)
(premise reflection or learning through meaning transformation; see Figure 2). In
short, there are two types of transformation: straightforward transformation of a
meaning scheme, which occurs through content and process reflection, and a much
more profound transformation of a set of meaning schemes (i.e., meaning perspec-tive)
by critically reflecting on premises.
Based on further research, Mezirow (1998a) refined his earlier work on critical
reflection (Mezirow, 1995). He presented two new aspects of critical reflection. One
of these aspects was the critical reflection of assumptions, whereby the learner not
only looks back on something that occurred but also examines the assumptions or
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14. 116 Journal of Transformative Education
Figure 3
Diagrammatic Representation of Mezirow’s (1998b) Taxonomy
of Critical Reflection of and on Assumptions
presuppositions that were involved in the reflection process (i.e., content and process
reflection) (see Figure 3). The other new aspect was the related concept of critical
self- reflection of assumptions. It involves “a critique of a premise upon which the
learner has defined a problem” (Mezirow, 1998b, p. 186). Therefore, critical self-reflection
of an assumption is akin to premise reflection (Mezirow, 1995). Learners
examine their worldview in light of their own particular belief or value system; an
example would be a teacher who believes that only younger colleagues can learn
about computers and resists attending educational technology workshops. Citing
P. M. King and Kitchener’s (1994) seven stages of adult learning development,
Mezirow (1998a) argued that their Stages 6, “abstract concepts of knowledge [that
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15. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 117
could] be related,” and 7, “abstract concepts of knowledge [that] are understood as a
system” (p. 208), respectively, together were what he was describing as critical self-reflection
of assumptions.
Mezirow (1998b) went on to articulate a taxonomy of critical reflection of and on
assumptions that involved objective reframing and subjective reframing. The dis-tinction
between the objective and subjective reframing is that the former is a con-sideration
of the assumption, whereas the latter is a consideration on what caused the
assumption to occur. This taxonomy is illustrated in Figure 3.
Objective reframing is either (a) a narrative critical reflection of assumptions and
requires critically examining something that was being communicated to a person (e.g.,
a colleague tells you that attending a 2-hour educational technology workshop is not
worth the time spent on it) or (b) an action critical reflection of assumptions and requires
taking a moment to critically consider one’s own assumptions in a task-oriented
problem-solving situation to define the problem itself (e.g., considering what you
believe would constitute the worth of an educational technology project) (see Figure 3).
Subjective reframing is, in fact, critical self-reflection on, rather than of, assump-tions
(see Figure 3). Subjective reframing can include one of four forms of critical
self-reflection on assumptions: narrative, systemic, therapeutic, and epistemic:
• Narrative critical self-reflection on assumptions is the application of narrative crit-ical
reflection of assumptions to oneself. For example, a teacher, who is told, by a
fellow teacher, that the time spent on creating a PowerPoint-based interactive game
is not worth it, considers the amount of teacher time devoted to the creation of that
game, adds that amount to how long the students are engaged in the activity, and
decides that the hours devoted to the creation of the game outweigh the benefits.
This demonstrates narrative self-critical reflection on assumptions as the teacher
critically examined something communicated to him or her (i.e., narrative reflection
of assumptions), considered the problem as applied to himself or herself, and came
to a resolution.
• Systemic critical self-reflection on assumptions is going beyond the action critical
reflection of assumptions to self-reflect on the taken-for-granted cultural influences,
which might be organizational (e.g., workplace) or moral-ethical (e.g., social
norms). A teacher, who self-reflects on the assumption that he or she cannot learn
how to create Web pages because of his or her age and realises that his or her age
is irrelevant to the learning process is demonstrating systemic critical reflection on
assumptions.
• Therapeutic critical self-reflection on assumptions is examining one’s problematic
feelings and their related consequences. When a teacher reflects on the belief that
he or she will never learn how to attach a document to an e-mail message and
acknowledges that this assumption is because he or she becomes frustrated so
quickly, he or she is demonstrating therapeutic critical reflection on assumptions.
• Epistemic critical self-reflection on assumptions is investigating not only the
assumptions but also the causes, the nature, and the consequences of one’s frame of
reference to surmise why one is predisposed to learn in a certain manner (Mezirow,
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16. 118 Journal of Transformative Education
1998b). When a teacher self-reflects on the fact that his or her principal’s obsession
with standardised testing scores has negatively affected his or her desire to acquire
educational technology skills and to take risks with his or her teaching because he
or she is intimidated by the administrator, then he or she is demonstrating epistemic
critical reflection on assumptions.
Mezirow (1998b) argued that “learning to think for oneself involves becoming
critically reflective of assumptions and participating in discourse to validate beliefs,
intentions, values and feelings” (p. 197).
Mezirow (2000) presented another revision of transformative learning in the edited
book entirely devoted to discussing the “theory in progress” (Mezirow, 1991a, p. xi)
by elaborating and revising his original terminology (see Figure 4). He argued that a
meaning perspective is a frame of reference and comprises habits of mind and subse-quent
points of view. Habits of mind were expanded to include a variety of dimensions:
sociolinguistic, moral-ethical, epistemic, philosophical, psychological, and aesthetic
(see Figure 4). These perspectives were expressed by teachers as their points of view,
which comprise clusters of meaning schemes (see Figure 4), or “sets of immediate spe-cific
expectations, beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and judgments” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 18),
which shape a particular interpretation and assign causality. Although they tend to
operate outside of awareness, meaning schemes can be described in terms of what
one sees and how one sees it. For instance, they can be described in terms of cause-and-
effect relationships, sequences of events, or characterisations of colleagues or of
the individual. However, because they are habituated in responses, meaning schemes
tend to determine a specific chain of events or actions that are followed automatically
unless they are considered through critical reflection and critical self-reflection.
To his previous articulations (Mezirow, 1985, 1991a, 1991b, 1994b) of the three
ways learning occurs, Mezirow (2000) added a fourth to reflect the emphasis on
transforming points of view. In addition to elaborating existing frames of reference
(or meaning perspective; see Figure 4), learning new frames of reference, and trans-forming
habits of mind, learning can occur by transforming points of view (see
Figure 5). It is important to note that people can change their points of view “by try-ing
on another’s point of view” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 21). One cannot, however, try on
someone else’s habit of mind.
For example, Teacher A can share the point of view that a PowerPoint presenta-tion
can replace an overhead projector presentation. However, this does not mean
that she has adopted Teacher B’s constructivist position of educational technology’s
role in the classroom (habit of mind). Teacher B believes that all present media (e.g.,
overhead projector, video recorder and television, blackboard) should be replaced by
a laptop and a data projector. Teacher A could easily duplicate the replacement of the
media (point of view) but not Teacher B’s belief system underlying that replacement
(habit of mind). This distinction between point of view and habit of mind is often
critical, as it is here when considering the implementation of the effective use of edu-cational
technology.
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17. Kitchenham / Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 119
Figure 4
Diagrammatic Representation of Mezirow’s (2000) Revised
Transformative Learning Theory
In short, Mezirow’s revisions of the initial theory led to a tighter description of
the theory. This revision involved an expansion of and a more thorough explanation
of the distinct elements of transformative learning theory.
Conclusion
Arguably, transformative learning theory has changed the way that we teach
adults. Like all strong theories, it has been critiqued, tested, revised, and retested
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18. 120 Journal of Transformative Education
throughout the past three decades to arrive at a definitive framework for describing
how adults learn best (Cranton, 1996, 2001; Cranton & Carusetta, 2004; Cranton &
King, 2003; Cranton & Roy, 2003; Taylor, 1997, 1998, 2000). As more researchers
test the theory in other disciplines, such as educational technology (K. P. King,
1997a, 1997b, 1998, 2000, 2002; Kitchenham, 2006; Whitelaw, Sears, & Campbell,
2004), the evidence for the robustness and applicability of the theory will grow.
Interest in Mezirow’s transformative learning theory has resulted in seven inter-national
conferences, each devoted to a different aspect of the theory and producing
numerous peer-reviewed papers, including many in the Journal of Transformative
Education. More than a dozen books, hundreds of scholarly papers and presenta-tions,
and more than 150 doctoral dissertations (Mezirow, 2006) have addressed the
theoretical and practical implications of the theory. Transformative learning theory
has undergone modifications and incorporated new constructs as they are debated
and tested and will, undoubtedly, continue to influence adult learning praxis across
many disciplines.
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Figure 5
Diagrammatic Representation of Mezirow’s (2000) Four Types of Learning,
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Andrew Kitchenham’s research interests include transformative learning, educational technology,
e-learning, adult education, teaching and learning, special needs, second language acquisition, reading,
and gender differences. He has published in refereed journals and books, has presented at numerous inter-national
and national conferences, and has taught more than 50 courses at eight universities. He holds two
doctoral degrees, one of which is in transformative learning and educational technology. He is presently
a tenured associate professor at the University of Northern British Columbia (Canada).
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