Masters Thesis_McNutt_Bethany

Incorporating Transformative 1
Running head: INCORPORATING TRANFORMATIVE
Incorporating Transformative Learning in the College Classroom
Bethany McNutt Marston
April 8, 2010
Northern Illinois University

Abstract
Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning has inspired continual research and debate
for the past 2 decades. This ten step adult education based theory suggests ways in which
learners can expand their frames of reference and worldviews. As the face of higher education
changes, classroom curriculum should also shift to incorporate transformative learning. This
paper will address how and why transformative learning strategies should be incorporated into
college curriculum by first defining learning and Mezirow’s psycho-critical perspective of
transformative learning. Next, this paper will review the main components of transformative
learning and how it can be implemented in the classroom through instruction and classroom
design. To conclude, this paper will explain how educators can prepare and implement
transformative learning in the college classroom.

Introduction
The goal of an educator is to prepare the student to be an autonomous learner that
challenges themselves and the world around them in order to discover a new better meaning for
things (Mezirow, 2000). According to Mezirow (2000), “transformative learning refers to
transforming a problematic frame of reference to make it more dependable in our adult life by
generating opinions and interpretations that are more justified” (p. 20). Transformative learning
teaches students to keep their minds open to new perspectives and to not be restricted to one
mindset. Several questions may come to mind when attempting to implement transformative
learning in the college classroom. What is transformative learning? How can we implement it
into the classroom? Is it a good idea to purposely incorporate transformative learning strategies
into the classroom instruction? What are ideal conditions for the classroom? How do we
prepare educators to teach for transformative learning? This paper will explore how and why it
is beneficial for instructors to incorporate transformative learning strategies into the college
classroom environment.
Understanding Learning
First, we must understand learning before defining transformative learning. Most
learning involves instrumental learning and communicative learning. According to Mezirow
(2000), instrumental learning is “learning to control and manipulate the environment or other
people, as in task-oriented problem solving to improve performance” (p. 8). For example, the
learner may test an assumption and then analyze and evaluate the results. Communicative
learning is defined by Mezirow (2000) as “learning what others mean when they communicate
with you” (p. 8). This requires the learner to critically reflect a set of assumptions to determine
their truth and appropriateness based on the learner’s beliefs and society’s norms.

Communicative learning often involves emotions, values, and morals (Mezirow, 2000). Validity
is established with instrumental learning through studies and research, whereas, communicative
learning only provides a “tentative best judgment” to validate beliefs or understandings through
reflective discourse (Mezirow, 2000, p. 10).
Mezirow (2000) states that “learning occurs in one of four ways: by elaborating existing
frames of reference, by learning new frames of reference, by transforming points of view, or by
transforming habits of mind” (p.19). The first one, elaborating existing frames of reference,
refers to accumulating more evidence to confirm and support our initial bias. The second way
we learn, learning new frames of reference, refers to creating a new negative meaning
perspective by focusing on perceived downfalls of a person or group. The third way we learn,
transforming points of view, can happen when we have an experience that makes us question and
critically assess our prior predetermined misconceptions resulting in a new point of view. If we
continuously question our point of view, then eventually we will transform our habits of mind,
which is the last way we learn according to what was mentioned earlier. In order to learn we
have to be exposed to new assumptions and critically reflect on the new assumptions and
perspectives as well as our own frame of reference to determine a new, better judgment. This is
transformative learning (Mezirow, 1997).
Transformative Learning
According to Mezirow (2000), “transformative learning refers to transforming a
problematic frame of reference to make it more dependable in our adult life by generating
opinions and interpretations that are more justified” (p. 20). The learner must be willing to
adjust their current frame of reference when exposed to a wide range of views in order to
produce a more accurate opinion. Mezirow believes that transformative learning is a ten phase

process (2000). As stated in Mezirow (2000), “transformations often follow some variation of
the following:
1. A disorienting dilemma
2. Self-examination with feelings of fear, anger, guilt, or shame
3. A critical assessment of assumptions
4. Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared
5. Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions
6. Planning a course of action
7. Acquiring knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans
8. Provisional trying of new roles
9. Building competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships
10. A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new
perspective” (p.22).
The first phase, a disorienting dilemma, refers to a problem, situation, or when something
inconsistent with what one is used to occurs in life. The second phase, self-examination, can
often be an emotional stage where one recognizes that this is actually happening and something
that they have to live with. During this stage the learner questions what they have always
believed and begins to assess their own beliefs. The third phase, a critical assessment of
assumptions, can often be a more positive experience as one may feel more at ease with their
discovery knowing that they are not alone and perhaps a sense of relief. This may lead to a more
clear understanding and a feeling of belonging. The fourth phase is recognizing that one’s
discontent and the process of transformation are shared. This is when one recognizes that they
are not alone and others have been through something similar (Merriam, Caffarella &
Baumgartner, 2007).
The fifth phase, exploring new roles, relationships, and actions, seems to arise when one
is more at ease with their findings of themselves. They take what they have learned about
themselves to plan a course of action, which is the sixth stage. According to Merriam, Caffarella
& Baumgartner (2007) the sixth stage, “…has four steps: acquiring knowledge and skills, trying

out new roles, renegotiating relationships, and building competence and self-confidence in the
new roles and relationships” (p. 136). These four steps encompass Mezirow’s sixth through
ninth phases. In these phases, the learner continues to build their confidence and uses their
experience and what they have learned for good to perhaps help others in a similar situation
(Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). Furthermore, Mezirow’s psycho-critical
perspective of transformative learning emphasizes several main components including reflective
discourse, critical reflection, experience, and action (Mezirow, 2000). Next, this paper will
break down each of these main parts of transformative learning.
Reflective Discourse
Reflective discourse allows learners to share beliefs with one another and assess the pros
and cons of different perspectives. At the present time in our society, we learn to take an
argumentative stance on our perspective. According to Mezirow (2000), “our culture conspires
against collaborative thinking and the development of social competence by conditioning us to
think adversarially in terms of winning or losing, of proving ourselves smart, worthy, or wise”
(p.11). We tend to have an invisible shield guarding us from the opposing viewpoint as if it is
inferior to our own or a personal upset will occur if we come to realize even a piece of another
perspective has validity (Mezirow, 2000).
Mezirow (2000) also points out, “[in our society] we set out to win an argument rather
than to understand different ways of thinking and different frames of reference, and to search for
common ground, to resolve differences, and to get things done” (p. 12). It’s interesting to think
about our society’s ways, which stems from our upbringing at home and in the classroom. It
seems that we want our society to be more open-minded when it comes to race, culture, sexual
orientation, and gender, but how can we with the current educational system?

In our current educational system, the teacher is the subject-matter expert. The teacher
seems to be the keeper of all proper or acceptable knowledge and the student is expected and
conditioned to absorb the information from the teacher without a second thought. The student
strives to do well in the class by trying to figure out what the teacher expects of a ‘good student’
and then does it (Marti, 2004). Is this really encouraging development?
It is important for us to encourage students to have an autonomous way of thinking and
not to simply rely on others’ thinking. This leaves room for continuous growth and development
(Mezirow, 2000). Mezirow (2000) emphasizes that “consensus building is an ongoing process,
and a best collective judgment is always subject to review by a broader group of participants. A
best (or more dependable) judgment is always tentative until additional evidence, argument, or a
different perspective is presented that may change it” (p. 12). Therefore, learners must be open to
reflective discourse to have a broader range of experience and knowledge in order to make a
well-formed judgment on a topic or issue. The learner must also be open to perhaps adjusting
their own way of thinking or adding to their previous understanding or viewpoint (Mezirow,
2000).
Furthermore, Mezirow (2000) describes reflective discourse as “a provisional suspension
of judgment about the truth or falsity of, or the belief or disbelief in, ideas until a better
determination can be made” (p. 13). It is important that the learner does not lose their own
values, when engaging in reflective discourse. Mezirow mentions that in order for discourse to
be successful, there needs to be complete and accurate information presented. Also, the
information must be presented in a way that does not cause coercion or deception and the learner
must be open to new perspectives and also be empathetic to others’ feelings and views. The
learner must also decipher between evidence and assumptions objectively and all learners must

have the same opportunity to participate. Lastly, the learner must be open to learning a more
broad understanding, which may possibly lead to a better judgment of the topic. It is difficult to
create an environment conducive to all of these conditions (Mezirow, 2000).
Critical Reflection
Another main component of Mezirow’s psycho-critical perspective of transformational
learning is critical reflection. According to Mezirow (2000), “to assess and fully understand the
way others interpret experience requires discourse, and to understand and assess the reasons their
beliefs and understandings requires the ability to become critically reflective of their assumptions
and our own” (p. 15). In order to receive the most from reflective discourse and critical
reflection, it is helpful for learners to be emotionally and physically mature. If the learner does
not have a clear understanding of their own experiences and feelings, it could be difficult for
them to constructively use others’ experiences to critically reflect (Mezirow, 2000).
In order to have a better understanding of Mezirow’s critical reflection component, we
must define some key terms. These terms are “frame of reference, habits of mind, and points of
view” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 16-18). The first one, frame of reference, is defined by Mezirow
(2000) as a “‘meaning perspective’, the structure of assumptions and expectations through which
we filter sense impressions” (p. 16). Frame of reference helps us to make meaning of things
based on our experiences. It is often learned through cultural norms as well as by one’s
upbringing. Frame of reference is made up of the other two key terms mentioned above, habits
of mind and points of view (Mezirow, 2000).
Habits of mind is defined by Mezirow (2000) as “a set of assumptions-broad,
generalized, orienting predispositions that act as a filter for interpreting the meaning of
experience” (p.17). Habits of mind may come from cultural norms, morals/values, personal

preferences, emotions, dreams, attitudes, or standards. These assumptions help us to form and
express an opinion or point of view about a particular situation or person (Mezirow, 2000).
And lastly, according to Mezirow (2000), “a point of view comprises clusters of meaning
schemes-sets of immediate specific expectations, beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and judgments-that
tacitly direct and shape a specific interpretation and determine how we judge, typify objects, and
attribute causality” (p. 18). Our point of view transpires so naturally that we tend to not even
question it unless we deliberately attempt to critically reflect our point of view (Mezirow, 2000).
Our values and beliefs make up who we are. If another point of view questions the
standards behind our point of view (our frame of reference), we are often emotionally upset and
offended. This makes us defensive about our point of view rather than open to understanding the
other points of views. This is due to our culture’s current ways as discussed earlier.
Transformational learning in the classroom can help learners change this approach (Mezirow,
2000).
Experience and Action
Mezirow’s psycho-critical perspective’s underlying assumption is that adults have a
plethora of experiences that make up who they are. The idea behind transformative learning is to
use these vast experiences to learn from them and build off of them. Adult learners can learn
from one other (Mezirow, 2000). According to O’Banion (2003), “research has suggested that
students often learn more from each other than they do from faculty” (p. 15).
The last component of Mezirow’s theory is action. This means that the learner must not
only discuss and believe another perspective, but they must actually use it. Surprisingly, learners
may think they have transformed their perspective, but when it comes to their actions an outsider
can quickly recognize that a transformation did not occur (Mezirow, 2000).

In summary, transformative learning is a beneficial educational tool in adult education.
Transformative learning helps students to determine new, better judgments by elaborating
existing frames of reference, learning new frames of references, and by transforming previous
misconceptions. In order for a transformational experience to occur, the learner must be willing
to adjust their current frame of reference to produce a more accurate opinion when exposed to a
wide range of views. Now that we have defined transformative learning, each of the main
components of Mezirow’s psycho-critical theory and its benefits, the next section of this paper
will discuss transformative learning in the college classroom.
Transformative Learning in the College Classroom
According to Brock (2010), “students expect that investing in college education will
change the way they look at the world, as well as provide the specific capabilities demanded for
an increasingly complex and changing workplace” (p. 122). Some scholars believe that graduate
schools are failing to meet these challenges (Brock, 2010). “As a potential solution, curricula
designed to maximize transformative learning may help undergraduate business students adjust
more readily to a fast-changing workplace” (Brock, 2010, p. 123). Similarly, transformative
learning strategies can be a useful teaching tool for most undergraduate and graduate programs.
In order for transformative learning to take place in the classroom, learners and educators
play a role. First, learners must be aware of their own beliefs before they can assess others’.
Learners must recognize their own assumptions and be willing to change them. It is important
for the learner to be open to change and have made some meaning of their own points of view,
habits of mind, and frames of reference in order to critically reflect others’ assumptions
(Cranton, 2002).

It is also important for the learner to engage in reflective discourse in order for
transformative learning to take place. Reflective discourse allows the learner to discuss
assumptions in groups to have a better understanding of their beliefs as well as others’. As
mentioned earlier, there are several conditions that are necessary of discourse in order for
transformative learning to occur. In review, the information that is presented must be accurate,
there cannot be coercion or deception in the classroom, the leaner must be open to change, the
learner must be empathetic to feelings and emotions, and they must make objective decisions.
All of these ideal conditions of discourse will help the learner form the best judgment regarding
the presented assumptions.
In addition to the learner, educators also play a role in the transformational learning
process. There are several things an educator can do to promote this type of learning. According
to Mezirow (1997), “the key idea is to help the learners actively engage the concepts presented in
the context of their own lives and collectively critically assess the justification of new
knowledge” (p. 10). Educators can accomplish this by setting objectives that promote
autonomous thinking including activities that promote critical reflection and discourse (Mezirow,
1997). The next section of this paper will discuss ways that educators can promote
transformative learning in the college classroom.
Instructional Designs that Promote Transformative Learning
There are many activities that can encourage students to broaden their meaning
perspectives. For example, exposing students to viewpoints that are different than their own
through films, documentaries, or literature can lead to transformative learning. Also, it is
important for the educator to present ideas from more than one point of view and to encourage
nonconforming ideas to promote a broader understanding. This will make students think

critically and to feel more comfortable sharing a perspective that is outside of the norm. This can
lead to more creative and interesting discussion, which could then lead to transformative learning
(Cranton, 2002).
Sometimes learners need help recognizing that their opinion stems from their set of
assumptions. Therefore, the educator can facilitate this understanding. The educator may
choose to ask follow-up questions that will help the learner to understand and recognize their
own predispositions in order to learn from the experience and expand or change their frame of
reference. An autobiography or journal can be a useful method to help learners understand their
assumptions. It is important for the educator to ask questions about the autobiography such as
“How did you make this decision?” and “What are you assuming with this statement?”, so that
the student has to consider where their assumptions came from. Was it something they had
experienced, someone they knew had experienced, or something they had been told? This
promotes critical reflection (Cranton 2002).
Moreover, educators can set up a classroom environment that encourages critical
reflection. In the autobiography example, the educator is encouraging the learner to question
their own point of view or assumptions. The educator should also openly question their own
perspectives, so that students do not see their view as the ‘right’ view. Setting up the classroom
this way may be one of the most beneficial ways to teach for transformative learning. This can
change our society’s current view that the teacher is the subject-matter expert (Cranton 2002).
According to Mezirow (2000), “the generally accepted model of adult education involves
a transfer of authority from the educator to the learners; the successful educator works herself out
of her job as educator and becomes a collaborative learner” (p. 14-15). If the educator is seen by
the learner as a co-learner, the learner may feel more comfortable and open to critical reflection.

It could lead to more participation and interest if the learner feels open to question their
classmates’ and even their teacher’s points of view.
Yet, it takes more than just having an understanding of another’s point of view in order to
have a transformational learning experience. The learner must not only understand the point of
view, but also accept the alternative assumption as true. In order for learners to do this,
educators must facilitate safe, fun ways to try the alternative views. There are several enjoyable
activities that allow students to participate in an alternate viewpoint. Examples are role playing,
critical debates, writing letters or memos from a different perspective, and reflective discourse
(Cranton, 2002).
Another way an educator can promote transformative learning is by addressing the same
topic in two different ways. They can also encourage students to communicate with one another
outside of the classroom environment by starting an email listserv or exchanging phone numbers.
Educators can encourage students to act on their new perspective in the community throughout
the semester or once the class ends (Cranton, 2002).
Because learners have been conditioned to seek the ‘right answer’, these activities can
often be very challenging and uncomfortable. That is why it is important for the educator to be
supportive as the learner shares their thoughts and feelings. Eventually, the learner will begin to
appreciate that others can hold reasonable opinions that are different than their own (Taylor,
2000).
The Ideal Classroom Environment for Transformative Learning
The environment of the classroom also plays an important role in transformative learning.
Learners must feel safe and comfortable in the classroom environment in order to feel open to

exchanging ideas and perspectives. The mood of the classroom both physically and socially can
affect the learner’s experience (Sokol & Cranton, 1998).
The physical set up of the classroom impacts the learner’s experience. The arrangement
of the chairs in the classroom, the technology equipment, distracting noises, the lighting of the
classroom, and the temperature in the classroom all affect learning (Veltri and Banning, 2006).
For example, chairs arranged in a circle encourage group discussion, allows for eye contact, and
exudes a feeling of closeness (Sokol & Cranton, 1998).
The environment should also be socially inviting. It is important for learners to feel that
they can share their beliefs with the group. This can be done in a number of ways. Educators
can initiate conversation and questions, so the learners feel more comfortable expressing
themselves. Another idea could be to have the learners write down their life history and make it
available online for the class to see. This helps learners get to know one another. It is also
useful for the learner to refer back to his/her initial positing to see how their perspectives have
changed after reading the course material and engaging in class discussions. This is another
opportunity for critical reflection (Taylor, 2000).
Evidence that Transformative Learning Can Occur in the Classroom: A Case Study
Anne Sokol and Patricia Cranton’s case study shows that transformative learning can
occur in the college classroom and how the educator can help facilitate a transformational
experience. This study consisted of 16 adult educators who participated in a three week course.
The facilitator of the course purposefully designed the learning activities to promote
transformative learning (Sokol & Cranton, 1998).
The participants were responsible for deciding the topics of the course and the evaluation
methods, so the learners felt empowered and involved in their own learning experience. Then

the facilitator designed exercises to create a supportive environment and challenged participants’
assumptions about teaching (Sokol & Cranton, 1998).
The ambiance of the classroom played an important role in this case study. The
classroom was very large, comfortable, and well-equipped. The group interaction was set up in a
circle giving off a feeling of equality and togetherness. A circle also allows more group
involvement making it easier to see each other’s body language and make eye contact. The
atmosphere of the groups was optimistic and upbeat even though the content of the activities was
taken very seriously by the participants (Sokol & Cranton, 1998).
Participants completed a personal profile in the beginning of the course and continued to
refer back to it as they evaluated and adjusted their learning and teaching styles based on their
new perspectives that surfaced from the course. Sokol and Cranton (1998) declare that “almost
all of the 16 participants experienced some degree of transformative learning” (p. 2). By the end
of the course, many of the participants had to revise their prior understandings and assumptions
regarding the role of teachers and students (Sokol & Cranton, 1998).
How to Prepare Educators for Transformative Learning
Given the important role of the educator in facilitating transformative learning and
influencing the classroom environment, next this paper will discuss how to prepare educators to
be more versed in facilitating transformative learning in the classroom. First, educators must be
prepared to encounter their own transformative learning experience as they learn new
assumptions about the role of teachers in the classroom. This begins with self-awareness of their
own psychological preferences in order to foster transformative learning in the classroom.
According to Cranton (2000), “…one of our habits of mind is our psychological predisposition”
(p. 202). Therefore, educators must be aware of their own teaching styles and learning

preferences and be open to change as they learn new assumptions. This will help them to
recognize others’ way of learning and to be more sympathetic when teaching since students
psychological preferences vary. It is important for teachers to understand their preferences as
well as their students in order to best promote transformational learning experiences (Cranton,
2000).
In order for educators to understand their own psychological preferences, they should
continuously take steps to evaluate their teaching style. There are many ways that educators can
achieve this. Educators can complete teaching style assessments or psychological type
inventories. They can videotape their teaching sessions or have a peer observe their teaching in
order to identify what their dominant teaching style is. They can keep a journal of their teaching
experiences and then review them to see patterns or common tendencies in order to understand
their teaching predispositions. They can engage in reflective discourse or discussion with other
teachers to learn alternative frames of references, or they could have their students play the role
as the teacher and use their own psychological preferences to have a better understanding of their
students’ preferred way of teaching and learning. All of these steps may guide the educator to
adjust their own frame of reference, which could lead to a transformational learning experience
(Cranton, 2000).
Once educators understand their own psychological dispositions, one may realize that
teaching cannot be a ‘one size fits all’ type of view. Educators must be open to continuously
learning new assumptions. They must also have administrative support and the opportunity to
read the latest educational methods, attend conferences, engage in extensive discussion with
other faculty members, and attend workshops and discussion groups (Cranton, 2000).

As discussed earlier to foster transformative learning, the educator must act more as a co-
learner than as the subject-matter expert. Transformative learning “…requires that the student be
understood as a partner in learning, not as a mere passive empty box more or less ready to
receive, store, and repeat information” (Marti, 2004, p. 24). Educators may begin the first day of
class by asking the learners what their goals of the class are and how they want to learn. The
educator can then design the class according to the learners’ preferences. Educators could also
physically arrange the group or chairs, so everyone has equal position to interact. They could
instruct the classroom differently to avoid a lecture style. Educators may choose to have learners
facilitate the classroom providing input when asked or when necessary. They can also arrange
activities that incorporate group work and social interaction (Cranton, 1994).
In summary, intentionally incorporating transformative learning strategies into the
classroom can be a beneficial instructional tool. Transformative learning helps students to
determine new, better judgments by elaborating existing frames of reference, learning new
frames of references, and by transforming previous misconceptions. When incorporating this
learning theory into the classroom, it is important to be conscious of the classroom materials,
activities, and environment. Educators can prepare and implement transformative learning in
their classroom by recognizing their own teaching style and learning preferences and be open to
continuously learning new assumptions. According to St. Arnauld (2007), “as a nation, we are
currently in the midst of some significant changes in the way that students are educated” (p. 4).
The need for constant change is especially essential in adult education in order to stay abreast
with the modern times and the newest learning theories.
Conclusion

Colleges’ student population is made up of a variety of diverse backgrounds and beliefs.
It can be a struggle to teach such a diverse group. Transformative learning can help educators
design the classroom to suit their learners’ needs (O’Banion, 2003). Setting up the classroom
environment, so the educator is more equal to the learner can have a number of advantages. It
encourages students to engage in reflective discourse and critically reflect one another’s
assumptions. Currently, students may be missing out on a lot of information that they could
teach one another. Since adult learners have diverse backgrounds and previous experiences, they
can share and learn about each other’s cultures, beliefs, and even question the status quo. This
teaching style opens up the classroom environment for well-rounded points of views (Marti,
2004).
The need for change is apparent, but it can often be overwhelming to initiate such a
change. In order for transformative learning to be implemented in the classroom, faculty and
administrators have to be properly trained, prepared, and confident in their new role as a
“knowledge manager or facilitator; not the featured star of the show, only its host” (Marti, 2004,
p. 24). It may be difficult for educators to step back from the usual role as a lecturer, but once
they see the success of the new environment it should become more natural (Marti, 2004).
Promoting a transformational learning experience should be the goal of instructors. This
teaching style promotes students to use their full potential. It also encourages continued growth
and development and autonomous thinking that can be applied outside of the classroom
environment. Transformative learning introduces students to new perspectives and expands their
way of thinking, so that if they choose to change their perspective they can. It empowers
students to evaluate their old assumptions, interpret others’ perspectives, and change their
perspective to have a new, more accurate judgment. “We cannot teach transformation. We often

cannot even identify how or why it happens. But we can teach as though the possibility always
exists that a student will have a transformative experience” (Cranton, 2002, p. 6).
Directions for Future Research
Future research should examine motivational factors, mentoring relationships, and how to
increase knowledge of the transformative learning theory and participation in reflective practices
that may lead to transformation. Moreover, studies should examine ways we can motivate
learners to be open to a transformative experience and act on their new skills, knowledge, or
perspectives. What makes someone ready for and open to change? What makes someone
committed to reflective actions that may lead to the successful integration of new perspectives,
attitudes and behaviors for themselves? At what age level should instructors implement this
theory into the classroom? How can we make all students open to having this experience? How
can we incorporate transformative learning in both informal and formal settings? How can we
make people more aware of transformative learning theory?
In addition, future research should also study the effects of a mentoring
relationship. Mentoring relationships may be as important as the reflective practices in enabling
transformative learning. The transformative process requires learners to re-examine a
disorienting dilemma, which often brings negative emotions to the surface. Relationships may
help support and sustain the learner’s experience of transformative learning.

References
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Cranton, P. (2002). Teaching for transformation. New Directions for Adult and
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Marti, E. (2004). Toward a community of practice. Community College Journal, p. 21-26.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in
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Theory in Progress. San Francisco: Jossey, Bass.
O'Banion, T. (2003). The learning-centered institution: ideas & observations. Community
College Journal, p. 13-15.
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14-16. Retrieved February 2, 2010, from ProQuest Education Journals database.

St. Arnauld, C. (2007). Teacher preparation needs to be a comprehensive endeavor.
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Taylor, K. (2000). “Teaching with developmental intention.” In J. Mezirow and Associates
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