Cellular processes like photosynthesis and respiration involve chemical reactions within cells, where various compounds interact and break down or form new compounds. These chemical reactions make up metabolism and require enzyme proteins to help reactions occur properly and efficiently. Photosynthesis captures light energy which powers reactions that use carbon dioxide and water to produce oxygen and glucose, storing the energy in glucose for later use by the plant.

1. Your title
page for
knowledge
section

2. SUMMARY – Organizer Handout
(for Chapter 2, Section 1)
Step 1: Read one time. * Take notes too if you want!  Reading Notes
Step 2:
Write the Main Idea (1-2 sentences) –
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Step 3: Write the supporting ideas. Write in the small boxes first!
Step 4: Write the supporting details. Write in the bigger boxes later!
Supporting Idea 1 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 1 (1+ sentences)
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Supporting Idea 2 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 2 (1+ sentences)
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Supporting Idea 3 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 3 (1+ sentences)
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Supporting Idea 4 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 4 (1+ sentences)
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Supporting Idea 5 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 5 (1+ sentences)
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4. Supporting Idea 6 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 6 (1+ sentences)
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Supporting Idea 7 (1-2 sentences)
Supporting Details 7 (1+ sentences)
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Supporting Idea 8 (1-2 sentences)
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5. Cells
(Summary Note for Chapter 2, Section 1)
A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing that is able to perform life functions. All living things
either have cells or are cells. Cells can vary from one living thing to another but all cells have
three things in common: a cell membrane (outer covering), cytoplasm (the main medium inside
the cell) and hereditary material (ex. DNA).
Cells also vary in size. Some are long as a metre (ex. nerve cell in human leg). Other cells are
very tiny. With some bacterial cells you put 8000 of them in the letter “i” . They can also vary in
shape and function.
As well we can divide cells into two main types:
1. Prokaryote Cells – structures (things) inside these cells are not surrounded by their own
membrane
2. Eukaryote Cells - structures (things) inside these cells are surrounded by their own
membrane
As well there are a number of distinct features that many (but not all!) cells possess:
A. Cell wall – some cells have a wall going around them (in addition to their cell membrane)
such as plant, agae, fungi and many bacteria cells. Cell walls are tough outer coverings
and they serve to protect the cell from stress. They also help to give cells a shape. Most
cell walls have cellulose which creates a mesh throughout the cell wall to allow things to
pass through. Also, there is sometimes pectin in cell walls which helps to make the cell
wall rigid.
B. Cytoplasm – this is a gelatinlike (jello like) substance that fills the who cell like a medium.
The cytoplasm contains the framework for the cell called the cytoskeleton which helps the
cell to move or maintain its shape. As well, many life processes occur in the cytoplasm
including chemical reactions. You will find also the subunits of the eukaryote cell called
organelles in the cytoplasm.
C. Nucleus – the nucleus is a very important organelle of the eukaryote cell. It controls and
regulates all cell activities. It also has its own membrane and it has DNA. DNA is a
chemical that contains a code for the cell’s structure and activity. By reading this code, all
cellular structures and activities occur.
D. Chloroplasts – these are green organelles found in plant cells. They contain chlorophyll
which can capture light energy to allow food to be made by a process called
photosynthesis.

6. E. Mitochondria –these are special bean-shaped organelles where respiration occurs. Here
food is broken down and energy is released in the process. Cells that require more
energy will naturally have more mitochondria in them such as muscle cells.
F. Ribosomes- these organelles are the place where proteins are made for cells. These
organelles also are not surrounded by their own membrane. Either they float freely
throughout the cytoplasm or they attach to another kind of organelle called the
endoplasmic reticulum (or ER)
G. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – this organelle is a series of some folded membranes. It
takes up a lot of space inside the cell and can be rough or smooth. Rough ER have
ribosomes attached but smooth ER do not. The function of ER is to allow materials to be
processed and moved around the cell more easily.
H. Golgi Bodies- Golgi Bodies further modify the proteins made by the ER. They are flat
membrane-bound substance. They package proteins made by the ER.
I. Vacuoles – some organisms (such as plant) also have some spaces in their cells
surrounded by a membrane. This allows space for the cell’s food to be stonred
J. Lysosomes – these organelles contain protected chemicals that assist the cell into
breaking down various things including food, cell waste and parts that are too old and
less efficient.
Final Note-
Cells often don’t work alone especially in complex living things. Usually, a group of cells share a
similar function or communicate with each to work together. In humans, we describe a group of
cells sharing the same or similar function as a tissue. Then, the group of cells or tissues other
groups of tissues to form organs. For example, the heart is another organ.

7. Viewing Cells
Please visit the following site to obtain
the required area of knowledge for this
note:
 http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/mjvl/bi
ology/microscope/microscope.htm#m
agnify

8. The Basic Makeup of a Virus
A virus is a strand of hereditary material that is
surrounded by a protein coat.
It is not alive.
It has no organelles or membranes.
It can only reproduce with the help of living
things. (It needs to use their cells)
Hereditary Material (ex. DNA)
Protein Coating

9. BACTERIOPHAGE
This virus attacks bacteria.

10. What a Virus Does (It
simply does nothing or reproduces!))
A virus can make copies of itself (multiply) by
using a living cell (called the host cell) of many
living things (animals, plants, ….)
Step 1 - Attacking
A virus cannot move by itself but can be carried
(ex. wind) to a cell
- When near a cell, the virus attaches itself to
the cell
- Then, the virus injects its hereditary material
into the cell
-After that, the virus may simply do nothing.
Such a virus is called a latent virus.
OR the virus may be active. It somehow uses
things in the cell to make copies of its injected
material.
Virus
attaches
Hereditary
to cell. The cell is
material
enters forced to
host cell. make
many copies
of viral parts

11. Flu Virus
This virus causes the common flu. (Influenza)

12. Step 2 - Assembly
Next, new viruses are assembled inside the
host cell
Step 3 - Release
Eventually, the new viruses are released to go
off
The cell itself is destroyed in the process.
Cell is
destroyed.
New viruses
are released.

13. Ebola Virus
This virus attacks humans and can make them sick
by giving them chills, dizziness and even comas
sometimes.

14. Fighting Viruses
Viral infection is also called disease and there
are many kinds depending on the virus.
Fortunately, we can use vaccines to prevent
disease
A vaccine consists of weakened viral particles
When a vaccine is injected into your body, the
body reacts by making defense materials (ex.
interferons) that can stop future viruses from
infecting. Because the vaccine is weak, it
cannot harm many cells before they build up a
defense.
There are also other ways to stop viruses such
as anti-viral drugs, quarantining patients,
killing infected animals, etc.

15. HIV Virus
This virus attacks humans and can cause AIDS.

16. ____________________________________________________
(Chapter 3, Section 2)
So far, you have learned that all living things require certain raw materials such as food, water
and gases like oxygen. Also, you have learned that living things also get rid of certain materials
as waste such as carbon dioxide. But how do these things actually get in and out of the living
things? How can they travel through living things from one cell in one area to another cell in
another area?
Well.. there are a number of ways that such movement occurs. Three important ones are
covered in this note:
_____________________________- Passive transport is kind of movement of matter in or out
of cells that does ____________ require any _________________ And one way that such
movement can occur without energy is by _____________________.
____________________ is the random movement of matter (things) from an area that is
_________________________ with them to another area that is
___________________________.
For example, consider a crowded subway filled with a hundred people! Suddenly the door opens.
What happens? Some of the people get pushed out into the more open space outside of the
subway. Diffusion is the same idea but happens with cells. At some point, there is more matter
for something inside the cell than outside the cell like the subway. So the matter inside
automatically goes out without any energy required. The reverse can happen too. There can be
a greater amount of matter outside of the cell than inside so this kind of matter will naturally
travel into the cell.
A good example of such matter is ___________________. You breathe oxygen so that there is
a big amount outside of your lung cells. By diffusion, the oxygen moves into your lungs. Then
the lung cells now have more oxygen in them than the empty red blood cells nearby. So now the
oxygen moves out of the lung cells and into the red blood cells. The red blood cells can then
transport the oxygen to other areas of the body and again some of the oxygen will diffuse into
other cells because they are less crowded with oxygen than the red blood cells that are carrying
the oxygen.
Another good example is ______________. Water can also be passively transported from an
area containing more water to inside a cell containing less water. Or vice verse. The
___________________ across a cell membrane is known as ________________. With certain
plants, you can even see the results of osmosis by changes in their shape. Consider a carrot
placed in pure water. There is more water outside so the carrot’s water stays in and the carrot is
very rigid. But if the carrot is placed in salt water, there is less water matter (ie. molecules) in a
given area near the carrot than inside the carrot. So water moves out of the carrot. The carrot
starts to go limp as a result.
It is also important to note that diffusion eventually _____________________. When enough
matter moves from one place to another, it gets balanced between the two places until neither

17. place has more of the matter than the other. No more movement occurs. And we can say
_________________ is reached.
_____________________! Sometimes there are other things that help matter to diffuse in or out
of cells. Again, _____________________ is needed to do this. A good example is
__________________. The molecules are too big to travel by diffusion . So other molecules
help them to diffuse. This kind of diffusion that involves assistance is called ________________.
The other molecules that help matter to move are called __________________________.
___________________________
Sometimes, things need to get inside the cells even when there is less of them outside of the
cell or they are too big to enter passively. Similarly, there are times when things need to get our
cells but there all already so many of them outside of the cell. So how can these things move in
or out?
Active transport is the answer. Like facilitated diffusion, there are special proteins that associate
with the matter to be transported. But this time, the proteins bind with the needed matter and
cellular energy is also used up to allow the transport to occur from an area that is more crowded
to an area that is less crowded.. So this type of transport if more active because of the crucial
____________________. For example, sometimes ________________________ is transported
in or out of a cell by active transport.
________________________________________-
These processes are used for extremely _____________________ or molecules of matter.
They are so big that even transport proteins cannot help them to get in our out of the cell. So for
this case. The whole cell slowly changes its shape. A part of it bends in such a way that it
______________________ the material to be transported either in or our of it. It then eventually
folds completely so that the particle is enclosed by a sphere called a______________________
that is now separate from the cell. This vesicle is no separate from the main cell and can travel
away. A good comparison is a balloon. Stick your finger into the balloon filled with just a little air..
What do you notice? Your finger gets completed surrounded (engulfed). If your finger and that
piece of balloon could break off , your finger would end up inside the balloon!
When the cell engulfs material outside of it which results in the creation of a vesicle
______________the cell, ___________________ is said to occur. On the other hand, when the
cell engulfs something just inside its membrane, a vesicle gets created __________________ of
the cell. _________________ is said to occur.

18. Transport Across the Cell- Extra Practice Handout
1. How is active transport different than simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?
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2. The prefix exo- means “out of” and the prefix endo- means “taking in”. How do these
meanings relate to the meaning of exocytosis and endocytosis?
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3.
A B
What process is shown in Figure A? _____________________________
What process is shown in Figure B? _____________________________
4. Do you think that endocytosis and exocytosis can occur within the same cell? Explain your
reasoning.
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5. Predict: If the transport proteins that carry important raw materials such as an amino acid into
a cell stopped working, how might the process affect the cell?
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19. ______________________________________________
(Chapter 3, Section 3)
As you have already learned, all living things use some process to get vital energy in order to
survive. For example, you learned that plants use photosynthesis first to obtain energy. Also,
both plants and animals use respiration to get energy as well. But what exactly is happening in
the living thing or more specifically in the cells of the living thing, that allow them to get energy
and then use the energy to do various crucial things such as growing, breathing or reproducing?
The answer is _____________________________. Whenever a energy-related process like
photosynthesis or respiration occurs, various compounds like water, sugar, oxygen and other in
cells of the living thing are interacting with each in such a way certain compounds are broken
down while other compounds are made. Whenever this happens, we can say a
_____________________________ occurs. Normally, one reaction does not occur for a
process but many reactions occur for each and every process. The total of all chemical
reactions in an organism is called _______________________. Further, these chemical
reactions are not random events In fact, they normally cannot occur in the cells on their own.
Instead, there are special proteins called __________________________ that assist all
reactions and make sure that they occur properly and efficiently. The enzymes are able to make
sure that the proper molecules needed in a reaction bind properly. Usually, the enzymes
themselves _____________________________________ although the molecules in the
reaction that they help often do. See Figure 12 in your textbook.
Example 1- ______________________________________
As you have learned, photosynthesis is one important process that is used for getting energy in
plants. More specifically, plants contain chlorophyll and other pigments that can capture light
energy. Then the captured light energy is used to power specific reactions that create food for
the plant. Again, enzymes are involved and they ensure that
____________________________________________________ react with each other in a
special way. Then when this reaction happens, _______________________ are produced at
the end. The plants then _______________________________ in a special form called
_____________________ until they need energy that gets captured in the chemical bonds of
the sugar when the sugar is made. When such a need arises (ex. for maintenance, growth,
reproduction), they break down the food and get energy to use for such needs.
Because plants are able to make their own food (And later get energy from it directly
themselves), they are called _________________________. Other organisms that cannot make
their own food but have to get by eating other living things are called
___________________________
Example 2 – ____________________________________:
Respiration is another important process in living things where energy can be obtained and
utilized. More specifically, respiration involves breaking down molecules in food which then
releases their stored energy for the cells and the living thing. Like photosynthesis, enzymes are
involved but this time they ensure that ________________________________ bind together.
Then, a reaction occurs where ______________________________________ are produced
and energy is also released and collected by the cell to use for various other processes that
require it. So for respiration to occur, it is vital that the organism has food and oxygen. The more

20. active the organism, the more food and oxygen is required. This is why you breather harder
when exercising and often feel more hungry after. You are trying to get more food and oxygen.
For many living things (ex. plants, animals, fungi, other), respiration occurs
______________________________ and then ________________________moves into the
_______________________________. Also, the main food source of energy is
_________________________________.
Example 3 - ________________________________
Fermentation is another process where energy can be obtained from
______________________ molecules. In many living things such as animals, fermentation
occurs as a _____________________ for respiration. As stated, respiration requires oxygen.
But sometimes the organism does not have enough oxygen at hand when it is needed. Instead
of the organism encountering great stress, it resorts to another different process that can also
release energy from food (glucose): ______________________. Again, glucoses molecules are
broken down in the _________________ somewhere to create energy. Further, different
molecules are produced during fermentation including a muscle painful compound called
_______________________. This is actually what causes ___________________.
There are even some organisms that carry out fermentation but respiration. One good example
is certain ______________________that are used to make __________________ When these
bacterial use fermentation to break down certain sugars in milk to get energy, lactic acid is again
produced. See figure 15. The lactic acid however reacts with the milk / yogurt and the mild
/yogurt becomes more solid. Another good example is _____________________ They can be
used to make _________________ First, they are put in bread dough. After doing so, they
naturally break down the sugar in the dough by fermentation. In the process, they produced
carbon dioxide (and also alcohol). If they are in food, this carbon dioxide will eventually make
the food ____________________. This is important for making bread.
Final Note:
It is also important to note the ___________________ between photosynthesis with respiration
and fermentation. The _________________________ seems to happen. For instance,
photosynthesis uses energy to make food. Respiration and fermentation use (break down) food
to get energy. As well, photosynthesis produces sugar and oxygen. Respiration needs sugar
and oxygen to occur. And respiration produces oxygen and water which is what photosynthesis
needs to occur.

21. Grade 6 Vocabulary for
The Genetics Project
heredity allele
genetics hybrid
dominant recessive
punnett square genotype
phenotype homozygous
heterozygous polygenic
inheritance sex-linked
gene mitosis
chromosome asexual
reproduction sexual
zygote Diploid
haploid meiosis
DNA RNA
mutation fertilization